How to Cite: Ogalde Gutiérrez, Manola and Fabiola Solari Irribarra. "Countercurrent. To reexamine the history of architecture in Chile through the lens of women". Dearq no. 40 (2024): 27-38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18389/dearq40.2024.04

Countercurrent. To Reexamine the History of Architecture in Chile Through the Lens of Women*

Manola Ogalde Gutiérrez

mcogalde@uc.cl

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile

Universidad Andrés Bello, Chile

Fabiola Solari Irribarra

fcsolari@uc.cl

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile

Received: December 1, 2023 | Accepted: June 14, 2024

Based on the ideas of art historian Griselda Pollock regarding the definition and critique of hegemonic cultural discourses, this article explores the possibilities for revising the history of architecture in Chile between 1920 and 1980 from a gender perspective. By employing Pollock's framework for understanding selective historiographical traditions, the article constructs a broad and heterogeneous panorama of significant figures at a local scale. The discussion concludes with reflections concerning the theoretical challenges involved in constructing a history of women in architecture.

Keywords: Women architects, women, gender, historiography, modernity, Chile.

hegemonic historiographic discourses in the arts

According to Griselda Pollock, the history of Western culture has been constructed through the continuous reproduction of a limited corpus of goods and practices, governed by logics of canonicity. Over time, individuals and authorized institutions have legitimized objects and practices, shaping selective traditions. A key element of this process is its perceived naturalness, as "always associated with canonicity as a structure […] is the idea of naturally revealed, universal value and individual achievement [...]" (Pollock 1999, 4). However, this construction has entailed selective operations that are not solely based on excellence but are also shaped by social, ethnic, sexual and gender hierarchies (Pollock 1999).

In the field of architectural historiography, several authors have long emphasized the need to critically reassess the 'grand narratives' of the past in order to write new histories that incorporate individuals previously marginalized, such as women (Kingsley 1988; Willis 1998). For instance, it has been suggested that there is a continued need for the revision of textbooks that still maintain normative status in university curricula, with the aim of expanding references to women's contributions for future generations (Gürel and Anthony 2006).

selective tradition as a structure of exclusion

Pollock identifies several potential strategies for re-examining history through the lens of women's contributions. The first emerges from the intersection of feminism with the canon, understood as a structure of exclusion. According to this approach, the absence of women in histography is remedied through the research, documentation and analysis of their work, typically in the form of anthologies, monographs and comprehensive studies (Pollock 1999).

This basic operation could be interpreted as an attempt to include female architects 'within' the established discourse, in terms similar to those traditionally used to integrate their male counterparts. In particular, the most paradigmatic accounts of modernity have predominantly emphasized architect's agency, focusing on the avant-garde, innovation, or the influence of their projects and careers (Kampen and Grossman 1983). Therefore, this revisionist approach implies making visible the fact that there were indeed significant female artists and architects whose contribution to the discipline has yet to receive adequate historical analysis and critical attention.

Over the past decade, numerous historical investigations have emerged in the field of architecture in Chile, in line with elements of this first strategy (Ogalde et al. 2023; Peliowski 2022; Peliowski, León and Saavedra 2021, Peliowski, Verdejo and Montalbán 2019; Pavez et al. 2019; Hecht 2018, Mondragón and Rozas 2018; Méndez and Zazo-Moratalla 2018). This trend can be partly explained because, although Chilean women had the opportunity to study architecture since the 1920s, contributions by female architects to the discipline before the 1980s are scarcely recorded in the most frequently cited local historiographic narratives. In fact, a recent panoramic review of eleven national and international historiographical constructions on the country's architectural production in the period recognizes references to only twenty female architects (Ogalde et al. 2023), despite the fact that around 467 female architects had already graduated in Chile by then (Peliowski, Verdejo and Montalbán 2019).

women architects with an independent practice in chile

Aligned with Pollock's first approach, it is crucial to continue highlighting the importance of female architect's contributions to the history of Chilean architecture, particularly their independent design work, which was relatively rare before 1980. Recent research has shed light on the previously unknown built works of pioneering architects in Santiago, such as María Elena Vergara [Universidad Católica de Chile-UC, 1935], Aída Rivera [UC, 1937] (fig. 1), Violeta del Campo [UC, 1944] and Esmeralda Rojas [UC, 1944]. Additionally, the independent design projects of female architects in Chile's central-southern regions, such as Luz Sobrino [Universidad de Chile-UCh, 19381] and María Cristina Suazo [UCh, 1939] (Castedo 1943; Darmendrail 2023; Eva Magazine 1956; Solari 2023c, 2023d, 2023e).

Figure 1

Figure 1_ Plan of the property belonging to Mrs. Celina Avello de Longieri, located at 574 Sotomayor Street, Santiago, signed by architect A. Rivera Méndez (1940). Ilustre Municipalidad de Santiago.

Likewise, various publications have drawn attention to the individual works of female architects from later generations, particularly in Valdivia and Santiago. Among these notable figures are Angela Schweitzer [UCh, 1952], Iris Valenzuela [UCh, 1949], Yolanda Schwartz [UCh, 1949] and Montserrat Palmer [UCh, 1961]. In northern Chile, the contributions of Glenda Kapstein [UCh, 1967] stand out, both for her architectural projects and her theoretical work (Cáceres González 2007; Eliash D. and Moreno G. 1989; Kapstein 2015; Palmer 2010; Schwartz 1967)2.

women architects in collaborative practices

The limited information available on the independent work of female architects during this period suggests that autonomous practice among women was relatively uncommon. However, when the focus shifts to their roles in collective settings or as part of broader professional teams, the number of prominent figures increases significantly.

For instance, historical records associated with the 1939 Chillán earthquake show that pioneering architects like Inés Floto [UCh, 1934] and Inés Frey [UCh, 1937] were active in the local architectural scene by the late 1930s. Their names are linked to a group of architects who publicly expressed their commitment and concern for the reconstruction of the devastated area. Likewise, Frey's name appears alongside five other colleagues in a letter addressed to Le Corbusier, published in the press in 1939, soliciting his support for the reconstruction effort (Eliash D. and Moreno G. 1989).

Many female architects also relocated to central and southern Chile following the catastrophe. Inés Frey's work during the 1940s, alongside her husband Santiago Aguirre, is well-documented. Both were part of a generation of professionals who moved from the capital to the Maule and Biobío regions, including architects such as Enrique Gebhard and female architects like Graciela Marcos [UC, 1941], Luz Sobrino [UCh, 1938], María Cristina Suazo [UCh, 1939] and Berta Cifuentes [UCh, 1940]. Several of Frey and Aguirre' projects, such as the Astor Cinema (formerly Esplanade Cinema) in Cañete, the Merino House (1941), the Cervantes Cinema and the Pecci Building (1943) in Concepción, have been widely recognized (Cáceres González 2007; Darmendrail 2023; Eliash D. and Moreno G. 1989; Pérez 2017).

Collaborations between architect couples were not limited to regions far from the capital. Several publications document the work of architect Raquel Eskenazi [UCh, 1950], in collaboration with her husband, Abraham Schapira, on projects in Santiago and particularly in Viña del Mar. In Santiago, their joint work includes Bilbao building (1951), in collaboration with Miguel Claro, and the building located at Calle Pío 2470. In Viña del Mar, their projects include the Montecarlo buildings (1962 and 1963), the Atalaya building (1969), and the Hanga Roa building (1970) (Scheidegger and García 2018; Schapira 2009).

Ana María Barrenechea [UCh, 1952] also made significant contributions in collaboration with her husband Miguel Lawner, both in Santiago and other regions. Barrenechea was a member of the Plastic Group, founded in 1948 by her and Lawner—whom she married in 1951—along with Carlos Albrecht, Osvaldo Cáceres and Sergio González, among others. It is noted that Barrenechea participated in the design of the Inacap Institute building in Concepción (1967), working alongside Lawner, Francisco Ehijo, and members of the TAU group, as well as in the project for the Regional College of the Universidad de Chile in Talca, developed in collaboration with Lawner and Ehijo and built in 1956 (Cáceres González 2007; Eliash D. and Moreno G. 1989).

Similarly, Margarita Pisano [UC, 1960] made significant contributions to architectural design through her work with Hugo Gaggero, to whom she was married until 1984. Pisano collaborated with Gaggero on projects such as the Gaggero house, built in Santiago in 1962, and participated in the design of Tower No. 1 of the San Borja Remodeling. Notably, Pisano had an extensive career as an intellectual and feminist activist (Rodríguez 2023c; Cáceres González 2007; Eliash D. and Moreno G. 1989).

Another significant example is Myriam Beach [UC, 1964], who founded a studio with her husband, Alberto Montealegre in 1971. Likewise, María Rosa Giugliano [UC, 1966] worked closely with her husband, Olivar Hernández. After leading the 1972 International Competition for the Redevelopment Area in downtown Santiago, she, together with her husband, secured first place in the 1977 Santa Isabel Competition and in the 1974 competition for a housing project for the Cooperativa Minera Andina (Rojas 2023b; Ogalde 2023b).

Esmée Cromie, a British landscape architect [GSD, 1957], is also mentioned for her collaboration with her husband, Jaime Bellalta. Together, they participated in the competition for the Benedictine Monastery in Santiago, working with architects León Rodríguez, Octavio Sotomayor, and Fernando Mena, between 1953 and 1954 (Rozas 2023d; Rozas and Hecht 2023; Pérez 2009; Pérez et al. 1997).

In addition, numerous female professionals worked as part of larger teams, collaborating with architects, engineers and artists. In fact, female architects previously cited for their independent contributions were also involved in collaborative projects with other professionals. For instance, Montserrat Palmer worked alongside Carlos Martner, as well as Teodoro Fernández, Ramón López and Rodrigo Pérez de Arce. Palmer and Martner developed together the La Pirámide Inn project in 1963, and later, during the 1980s, she worked with Fernández, López and Pérez de Arce (Cáceres González 2007; Eliash D. and Moreno G. 1989; Rozas 2023b; Palmer 2010).

Along the same lines, Yolanda Schwartz collaborated with architects such as Osvaldo Cáceres González, Alejandro Rodríguez and Francisco Ehijo on the project for the Regional College of the Universidad de Chile in Temuco, developed between 1962 and 1966 (Cáceres González 2007; Eliash D. and Moreno G. 1989).

Architect Gabriela González [UCh, 1954] worked alongside Edmundo Buddemberg, Alejandro Rodríguez, Pedro Tagle and Ernesto Vilches in the Biobío region. González designed the Universidad de Concepción (UDEC) School of Medicine building together with Buddemberg between 1948 and 1951. She also collaborated with him and Rodríguez on the UDEC Indemnity Fund Building (1957) and worked with Tagle and Vilches on the San José Church in Talcahuano, built between 1974 and 1981 (Pérez 2017; Cáceres González 2007; Pérez et al. 1997).

Architect Gloria Barros [UC, 1965] stood out for her work with Christian de Groote, Hugo Molina, Roberto Goycoolea and Víctor Gubbins. Gloria Barros is often noted for her role in the design of the Ralún Hotel, developed with de Christian de Groote (National Architecture Award 1993) and Hugo Molina, and built in 1977 in the Reloncaví Gulf. Barrios worked in the studio of Goycoolea (National Architecture Award 1995) prior to getting her professional degree in 1965 and later partnered with de Groote, Molina and Gubbins (National Architecture Award 2000). Together, they designed several projects, including the 1979 remodeling of El Mercurio in Valparaíso. Molina, who later became Barros' partner, collaborated with her on several award-winning projects during the 1990s (Rojas 2023a; Torrent 2010).

A noteworthy example is Hilda Carmona [UC, 1954], who practiced architecture alongside her husband, Sergio del Fierro, in collaboration with Jaime Besa, Jorge Díaz and Sergio Miranda. During the 1960s, Carmona developed a series of university buildings and renovations for UC, in partnership with Besa and Díaz. Later, she founded a studio with her husband and, in association with Miranda, with whom she taught Design Studio courses at UC for several years. Together with del Fierro and Miranda, Carmona contributed to numerous housing projects and collaborated with occasional partners, such as Hernán Riesco, Isidro Suárez and Juan Ballestero (Rodríguez 2023a).

Lastly, landscape architect Marta Viveros [UC, 1956] had a career characterized by teamwork. In addition to co-founding a studio with Fernando Arnello, Antonio Abadía and Fernando Lorca, Viveros worked with a diverse range of collaborators. Among her temporary partners were María Teresa Ortúzar, Raúl Silva, María Isabel Fuentes, Mario Pérez de Arce, Alberto Piwonka, Marco Antonio López, Christian de Groote, Jaime Burgos and Mariano Campos, among others (Rodríguez 2023d).

associations between women architects

From another perspective, recent research has uncovered early examples of collaborative practices among female architects, which were rare before the 1980s. In the field of housing design, previously unknown professional collaborations have been documented between pioneers such as Esmeralda Rojas and Aída Rivera (fig. 1), as well as between María Elena Vergara and Violeta del Campo (fig. 2). Although Rojas and Rivera operated independent studios, they collaborated on the design of a house for Juan Montenegro on Nancy Street in Ñuñoa, Santiago (1940). In this project, Rivera signed as the architect and Rojas as the contractor. Similarly, records show collaborations between Vergara and del Campo, who were classmates in the 1928 cohort at the UC. In the sewage plan for a house designed by del Campo, she is listed as the owner and Vergara as the designer (1937). Based on the morphology of the project, it is presumed to be a minor intervention on the property where del Campo would later design her own house in 1954 (Solari 2023c, 2023d, 2023e).

Figure 2

Figure 2_ Sewage system plan for Av. Italia No. 1561, Ñuñoa, signed by Violeta del Campo M. as owner and María Elena Vergara N. as the professional in charge, ALC26609 (1937). Archivo Técnico Aguas Andinas.

Although the precise nature and motivations of these associations have not yet been fully characterized, some interesting details have emerged. For instance, it is noteworthy that at the time of their projects, del Campo and Rojas had not yet obtained their professional degrees, unlike Vergara and Rivera, with whom they chose to collaborate3.

selective tradition as a structure of subordination

From an alternative perspective, Pollock outlines a second approach to revising history from a gender perspective. This involves the intersection of feminism with the canon, understood as a structure of subordination. In this view, selective tradition functions to hierarchize, marginalize and diminish the role of women in art history, following contradictory power structures shaped not only by gender, but also by sexuality, class or ethnicity. The strategy emerging from this approach centers on the recovery and recognition of alternative practices and processes that exist outside of dominant discourses—particularly practiced by or associated with women—that have not held a place within the prevailing value system (Pollock 1999).

In art history, this strategy has foregrounded art forms historically regarded as minor, such as the decorative arts, textiles and ceramics. In the context of architectural history, it calls for examining marginal or secondary roles within design processes where women have made specific contributions, as Gwendolyn Wright has suggested (Pollock 1999; Wright 1977).

women architects in 'secondary' action spaces

In Chile, research has examined the role of female architects who worked outside the realm of private design practice, particularly within public administration. A significant number of first-generation female architects were employed in municipal and state organizations4. Within this context, the experiences of architects such as Violeta del Campo, Aída Ramírez [UC, 1937]5 and Graciela Espinosa [UC, 1937] as public servants have been the focus of various studies (Peliowski, León and Saavedra 2021).

It is important to highlight that many of these public officials contributed to the developed infrastructure, public spaces and housing projects within the same institutions. Among the architects identifies as project authors is María Rojas Gónzalez [UC, 1943], who appears to be the first female architect to have her work published in a local magazine (Boletín del Colegio de Arquitectos de Chile 1945). She was responsible for designing a residential complex for the Fund for Private Employees and Journalists in Santiago.

In addition, studies have documented the work of female architects in specialized fields beyond building design, which have not yet been fully integrated decisively into global architectural historiography. For instance, in landscape architecture, significant contributions have been made by figures such as Esmée Cromie [GSD, 1957], Marta Viveros [UC, 1956], Myriam Beach [UC, 1964], Cristina Felsenhardt [UC, 1972] and Juana Zunino [PUCV, 1972] (Rodríguez 2023b, 2023d; Rojas 2023b; Rozas 2023d; Rozas and Hecht 2023; Solari 2023b).

Female architects involved in research have also been recognized for advancing academic knowledge and developing methodological and technical tolls aimed at shaping public policy. For example, the teaching career of Liliana Lanata [UC, 1958], alongside her husband Germán Bannen, has been noteworthy, as has the work of Angela Schweitzer [UCh, 1952] in university education. Other significant contributions include the work of Joan Mac Donald [UC, 1969] and Margarita Greene [UC, 1973] in housing and urban planning (Ogalde 2023a; Rojas 2023c; Rozas 2023e; Solari 2023a).

Additionally, the work of female architects in political and labor organization and representation has been highlighted, including figures such as Eliana Caraball [UC, 1965] and Iris Marcich [UC, 1977]. Moreover, the role of female architects in developing a feminist critique has been explored, with pioneering academic contributions from Ximena Gutiérrez [UC, 1969] and the prominent activism of Margarita Pisano [UC, 1970], known for her contributions to feminist thought (Celedón and García de Cortázar 2017; Rodríguez 2023c; Rojas 2023d; Rozas 2023a, 2023c).

other roles

An alternative path to challenging the dominant discourse as a structure of subordination involves examining the roles of women involved in processes od production or transmission within the field of architecture. This would require acknowledging the contributions of women from disciplines and fields outside of traditional architectural practice, such as designers, artists, clients and mediators.

For instance, further research is needed to explore the role Anni Albers played during her 1953 visit Chile with Josef Albers, a visit that had a significant impact on local teaching methods in architecture. Fernando Pérez suggests that the visit occurred due to Sergio Larraín's international contacts and represents a historical milestone. However, the specific role Anni Albers played in the activities conducted during her stay, as well as her influence in the field of architecture, has not yet been documented by local historiography (García de Cortázar 2019; Pérez 2009).

Additionally, it is important to recognize the role of visual artists whose work was closely linked to architecture and the urban environment in Chile during this period. Sculptors Marta Colvin and Lily Garafulic stand out, along with other notable figures who created works that interacted with built spaces and public areas in the 1920s. By the 1940s, the work of visual artist María Martner and the sculptor Blanca Merino gained recognition. Merino is particularly noted for her equestrian monument to Manuel Rodríguez, installed in Bustamante Park in 1947. Martner, along with Eugenio Brito and Carlos González, created murals for the Enrique Gebhard Marine Biology Station in Valparaíso, completed in 1941 (fig. 3). Pérez refers to this as an expression of the postwar international trend toward the integration of art and architecture (Pérez 2017).

Figure 3

Figure 3_ Photograph of the Montemar Mural by María Martner, Carlos Gonzaléz and Eugenio Brito at the Montemar Marine Biology Station, designed by Enrique Gebhard, Viña del Mar (1958). Eugenio Brito Photographic Archive. Courtesy of Paula and Eugenio Brito Figueroa. https://www.eugeniobrito.cl/obras/mural-montemar/.

In line with Alice Friedman's ideas (1998), several publications also emphasize the importance of women as patrons, mediators and clients in the development of architectural projects. In Chile, figures such as Eugenia Huici Arguedas (fig. 4) acted as conduits for architectural influences. Huici was portrayed by some of the most prominent international painters of her time and maintained close relationships with avant-garde European artists, including Swiss writer Blaise Cendrars. According to Fernando Pérez, her connections were instrumental in enabling Chilean architect Sergio Larraín to visit Le Corbusier in 1928 (Guerrero 2002; Medina 1964; Pérez 2017).

Figure 4

Figure 4_ Harper's Bazaar, February 1938. Jean-Michel Frank, "Madame Errázuriz at Home". Dixon Gallery and Gardens, Memphis, Tennessee.

When it comes to clients, numerous writings refer to the involvement of women between the 1920s and 1940s, including Luisa Ariztía (fig. 5), Teresa Brown Caces de Ariztía and Catalina Rindler (Aguirre 2012; Pérez 2016, 2017). It is also worth delving into the specific roles played by women from Chile's upper bourgeoisie—such as Marta Arteaga Undurraga, Elena Errázuriz Echeñique and Loreto Cousiño Goyenechea, among others—in commissioning projects and shaping significant urban sectors in Santiago, such as the El Golf neighborhood (Bannen 1996; Laborde et al. 2007; Eva Magazine 1956; Pérez Pallares 2012). In addition, the later contributions of clients such as Raquel Bascuñán and Constanza Vergara to the development of both primary and secondary housing projects are also acknowledged (Jocelyn-Holt 2018; Pérez 2010).

Figure 5

Figure 5_ Photograph of the Ariztía House in Santiago, by Jack Ceitelis, gelatin on cellulose acetate, 6 x 6 cm. (c. 1970-1980). Biblioteca Nacional Digital. http://www.bibliotecanacionaldigital.gob.cl/bnd/629/w3-article-644868.html.

challenges in writing the history of women in architecture

Today, the need to further expand the recognition of women's historical agency in architecture seems inescapable. On the one hand, understanding selective tradition as a structure of exclusion encourages the continued documentation of the historical role of female architects through their design practices, whether carried out independently, collectively, or within mixed or women-only associations.

On the other hand, understanding this tradition as a structure of subordination requires attention to the historical roles of female architects in areas that have been underrepresented in historiography and are, to some extent, perceived as peripheral to the core of the discipline. This includes female architects involved in public administration, landscape architecture, research, political and union representation, and even feminism movements.

This second perspective also calls for recognizing the contributions of women who, although not in the forefront, played important roles in the processes of producing and transmitting architecture in Chile, as designers, artists, patrons, clients and mediators. Both perspectives challenge the selectivity of the historiographic discourses and help reveal the gender hierarchies embedded within the value systems that sustain them.

However, these two approaches to engaging with the dominant structures of histography may not be sufficient. Pollock proposes a third approach, which entails understanding selective tradition "[...] as a discursive strategy in the production and reproduction of sexual difference and its complex configurations with gender and related modes of power" (Pollock 1999, 26). For Pollock, this approach involves actively dismantling the dominant discourses by adopting a more dynamic and complex understanding of sexual difference.

In this same vein, Teresa de Lauretis encourages moving beyond the opposition of working 'within' or 'outside' the canon, to instead illuminate the overlooked spaces that intersect with dominant historiographical representations. De Lauretis suggests that by reading 'between the lines' or working 'against the current,' it becomes possible to critically explore the spaces where the represented and the unrepresented coexist. To achieve this, she advocates for exploring the "spaces in the margins of hegemonic discourses, social spaces carved in the interstices of institutions and in the chinks and cracks of the power-knowledge apparati" (De Lauretis 1987, 25). Only by acknowledging these contradictions can we begin to escape binary oppositions, which are themselves inadequate for freeing women from competing for space within, at the margins of, or in opposition to a dominant norm. Today, it is crucial to contribute to the establishment of "[...] a system of alternative values and symbols that [makes] it possible to build society through collaboration, rather than through domination" (Pisano 2001, 55; own trans.).

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* This essay is derived from the research conducted as part of the Entre líneas initiative, carried out by the authors in collaboration with Bárbara Rozas, Javiera Rodríguez and Valentina Rojas, under the Semilla EARQ UC project Entre líneas. Una relectura del discurso moderno a través de las mujeres de la Escuela de Arquitectura UC (2020-2021), and the Fondart project No. 626459, Entre líneas. Arquitectas modernas en Chile y su aporte disciplinar (2022-2023).

1 All graduation dates for female architects from the Universidad de Chile (UCh) after 1950 were consulted in Ciento cincuenta años de enseñanza de la arquitectura en la Universidad de Chile 1849-1999 (Universidad de Chile, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, 1999).

2 The website https://somosmupa.cl/ also highlights the professional contributions of Juana Baudoin [UCV, n.d.], María Isabel Navarro [UCh, 1978], María Teresa Morales [UCh, 1972], Mirta Cecilia Ponce [UCh, 1979] and Iris Marcich [UC, 1977] in northern Chile.

3 It is important to note that Rojas submitted her thesis project in 1940 but did not submit her construction report until 1944, as confirmed by her academic record, preserved in the FADEU Archivo de Originales.

4 Of the 46 female architects graduated between 1930 and 1949, employment information has been found for 31. Of these, at least 29 have been identified as having worked in public service at some point in their careers (Peliowski, León and Saavedra 2021).

5 The academic record does not indicate the exact date of graduation, though it lists 1937 as the year of her last recorded activity.