Big-Bottomed Ants: Between Bio-Cultural Heritage and Pest (Santander, Colombia)*

Orlando Aguilera-Espinosa**

Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle. Eco-anthropologie (UMR 7206 EA), Patrimoines locaux, Environnement et Globalisation (UMR 208 PALOC) (France)

Esther Katz***

Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD). Patrimoines locaux, Environnement et Globalisation (UMR 208 PALOC) (France)

Nicolas Césard****

Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle. Eco-anthropologie (UMR 7206 EA) (France)

Naturaleza y Sociedad. Desafíos Medioambientales • número 13 • septiembre-diciembre 2025 • pp. 104-125

https://doi.org/10.53010/YCMP4466

Received: November 2, 2023 | Accepted: March 14, 2024

Abstract. This study examines the consumption of “big-bottomed ants” (hormigas culonas), Atta laevigata (F. Smith, 1858), in the department of Santander, Colombia. It explores the complex interactions between local communities and these insects, which are valued as a regional food heritage but are also considered as pests because of the significant damage they cause to crops. The research highlights the role of local knowledge in ant collection and traces the remarkable growth in commercialization, driven in part by the migration of Santander residents and increasing tourism. The work also discusses the ecological significance of leaf-cutter ants in regional ecosystems and emphasizes the need for a broader conservation approach that acknowledges their ecological roles while promoting coexistence with species traditionally seen as pests. Finally, it argues that food heritage can serve as a key instrument in supporting and advancing these conservation strategies.

Keywords: Atta ants, entomophagy, food heritage, pest, Santander (Colombia).

Las hormigas culonas: entre patrimonio biocultural y plaga (Santander, Colombia)

Resumen. El estudio se centra en el consumo de hormigas culonas, Atta laevigata (F. Smith, 1858), en el departamento de Santander, Colombia. Se analizan las complejas interacciones entre las comunidades locales y estos insectos, que son apreciados como un patrimonio alimentario regional, pero también son vistos como plagas debido a los daños que causan en los cultivos. Se resalta la importancia de los saberes locales en la colecta de las hormigas y cómo su comercialización ha experimentado un notable aumento, en parte debido a la migración de santandereanos y al turismo. El artículo también aborda la importancia ecológica de las hormigas arrieras en los ecosistemas. Además, se sugiere la necesidad de un enfoque más amplio para preservar estas especies, considerando su papel en la naturaleza y explorando estrategias de convivencia con otras especies catalogadas como plagas. Se argumenta que el patrimonio alimentario puede desempeñar un papel fundamental en la promoción de estos enfoques.

Palabras clave: entomofagia, hormigas Atta, patrimonio alimentario, plaga, Santander (Colombia)

Saúva-cabeça-de-vidro: entre o patrimônio biocultural e a praga (Santander, Colômbia)

Resumo. Neste estudo, o foco é o consumo de saúva-cabeça-de-vidro, Atta laevigata (F. Smith, 1858), em Santander, Colômbia. Nele, são analisadas as complexas interações entre as comunidades locais e esses insetos, que são apreciados como um patrimônio alimentar regional, mas também são vistos como pragas devido aos danos que causam aos cultivos. É destacada a importância do conhecimento local na coleta das formigas e como sua comercialização teve um aumento notável, em parte devido à migração dos santanderenses e ao turismo. No artigo, também é discutida a importância ecológica das formigas operárias nos ecossistemas. Além disso, é sugerida a necessidade de uma abordagem mais ampla para preservar essas espécies, considerando seu papel na natureza e explorando estratégias de coexistência com outras espécies classificadas como pragas. Argumenta-se que o patrimônio alimentar pode desempenhar um papel fundamental na promoção dessas abordagens.

Palavras-chave: entomofagia, formigas Atta, patrimônio alimentar, praga, Santander (Colômbia).

Introduction

The consumption of insects by humans, or entomophagy, is a practice documented in 130 countries across all five continents (Ramos-Elorduy, 2009). The consumption of over 2,000 insect species has been recorded, primarily belonging to the orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, and Hemiptera (Jongema, 2017), reflecting the diverse gustatory and nutritional needs of different local communities. In the Americas, notable examples include Mexico, where insect consumption is relatively common (Katz, 2016). It is less frequent in Colombia and mostly occurs in the Amazon region (Gasca-Álvarez & Costa Neto, 2022). In the Andean region, documented cases are rare (De Foliart, 2002), but they include the consumption of “big-bottomed ants,” which are widely eaten and valued in the department of Santander.

The vernacular name hormigas culonas (big-bottomed ants) refers to the large abdomen (specifically the gaster) of the winged reproductive females (queens) of leaf-cutter ants from the genus Atta, tribe Attini, order Hymenoptera, most commonly Atta laevigata (F. Smith, 1858). In the department of Santander, only the queen caste is consumed, collected during their nuptial flight, which takes place at the onset of the rainy season, typically between late March and June. They are mainly eaten roasted, although a variety of other recipes have also been developed.

This food heritage has deep roots. The practice of collecting, preparing, and consuming big-bottomed ants has indigenous origins dating back to pre-Hispanic times (Ardila Díaz, 1986; Martínez Villalba, 1973). The first records were written by Spanish conquistadors, who observed with amazement the indigenous Guane people, who inhabited a large part of what is now the department of Santander, collecting and eating these insects (Ardila Luna, 2011). Although the Guane people are now extinct, elements of their heritage, including dietary practices, have been passed down to the current population, which is of mixed descent. Today, in Colombia, the consumption of big-bottomed ants is linked to the department of Santander and recognized as a regional food heritage. The residents of Santander are proud of this culinary tradition, and those who have moved away often express nostalgia for this delicacy. The trade of this product has increased in recent decades to meet the demands of people from Santander living throughout the country. As a regional specialty, big-bottomed ants have also become a popular tourist commodity.

However, leaf-cutter ants are also considered pests. Historically, cattle ranches predominated in this region, but in recent decades, these large estates have been divided into smaller agricultural plots. Farmers see leaf-cutter ants as damaging insects, and when “infestations” harm crops and lead to significant economic losses, they feel compelled to use pesticides. Therefore, these insects hold an ambivalent position: they are highly valued as a cultural delicacy but rejected when they threaten agricultural productivity—a conflicting perception or a paradoxical relationship.

This work aims to explore the complex relationships between humans and their environment, focusing on the different ways nature and, in this specific case, insects are perceived. It seeks to contribute to discussions on food and natural heritage through a case study from the department of Santander, Colombia, where contradictions exist surrounding the place and role of big-bottomed ants.

Research Context and Methodology

Although the consumption of big-bottomed ants is widely known in Colombia and recognized as a regional food heritage, especially since the country adopted institutional policies to protect and promote traditional cuisines (Ministerio de Cultura, 2012a), there are still few studies that examine this practice and related customs.

As part of the COMINSECT pilot project (see "About this paper" section), Nicolas Césard and Esther Katz conducted exploratory missions in Bogotá and the department of Santander in October and November 2018. Orlando Aguilera-Espinosa expanded this research work through a master’s thesis carried out between April and June 2019 (three months), later continuing it for his doctoral thesis. He conducted additional fieldwork in the region in 2022 and 2023, while Esther Katz also spent a short period there in 2023. Since 2022, this research, including the doctoral project, has been conducted within the framework of the ANR-LATINSECT project, which examines the cultural aspects of insect consumption in four Latin American countries: Colombia, Mexico, Ecuador, and Brazil.

The research projects share a common goal of understanding local representations and knowledge mobilized by communities, as well as studying the commercial chain and the actors involved. To this end, semi-structured interviews were conducted in Santander with 63 collectors, 37 merchants, 29 consumers of big-bottomed ants, and three chefs (the latter in Bogotá). Regular observations of transactions among participants in the commercial chain were also carried out. Collection and preparation techniques were documented and analyzed through direct observation, photographs, and videos. All community collaborators interviewed or engaged in fieldwork were informed in advance about the research goals and provided oral or written consent before any recordings of discussions or interactions. A complementary literature review on the biology and ecology of these ants was conducted, and experts in these areas were consulted. One of the central aims of this research is to trace the journey of big-bottomed ants from their nests to the consumer. How are they collected? Who collects them? What transformations occur along the way? What does the commercial chain look like? In summary, the study seeks to reconstruct the entire trajectory of big-bottomed ants within their social, economic, and cultural context.

What Are Big-Bottomed Ants? Elements of Biology

As we mentioned, big-bottomed ants are winged reproductive females, or queens, that belong to the various castes that compose the complex social system of leaf-cutting ants. In Santander, these ants live in inter-Andean valleys as well as in savannah and pasture areas. Worker ants are often seen forming long processions while carrying leaves, seeds, and flowers. This plant material serves as a substrate for cultivating two fungal species (Leucoagaricus and Leucocoprimus), on which they mainly feed (Fernández et al., 2015; Passera & Aron, 2005; Rodríguez et al., 2008). In other words, the plant matter harvested from trees and crops is part of a sophisticated mutualistic symbiosis between the ants and basidiomycete fungi.

Ant colonies consist of three main castes: queens, males, and workers. Queens are the only fertile caste, distinguished by their large abdomens and wings. They are responsible for reproduction and can lay both haploid and diploid eggs, which develop into males and workers. Queens may live for more than 15 years and play a crucial role in maintaining monogamous colonies by producing large numbers of workers needed to build complex nests. The death of a queen leads to the colony’s collapse (Fernández & Serna-Cardona, 2015; López-Riquelme & Ramón, 2010; Passera & Aron, 2005).

Males are much smaller than queens, and their main role is to mate with virgin queens during the nuptial flight, after which they die. The worker caste is morphologically diverse and subdivided into subcastes, each with a distinct size and function within the colony. Medium-sized workers explore, cut, and transport plant material, while the smallest ones, known as gardeners and nurses, tend to the symbiotic fungus and care for the young (Hölldobler & Wilson, 2011). Meanwhile, the larger workers, also called “soldier ants” (hormigas soldados) or “big-headed ants” (cabezones) by the communities, have large heads and are primarily responsible for defending the colony.

Classification of Castes by Local Communities

As is often the case, communities become familiar with their environment by first observing, understanding, and naming it in their own way, and the case of the big-bottomed ants is no exception. Drawing on morphological features, local communities have developed their own classification for the different castes observed in big-bottomed ant nests.

For instance, after the “queens” (reinas or culonas) are fertilized during their nuptial flight, they fall to the ground, shed their wings, and bury themselves to establish new nests. At this particular moment, communities call them “little dogs” (perritos or perritas), referring to the action these animals perform when burying an object. Males are called “airplanes” (aviones), because they fly, or “little girls” (chinas) due to the slender shape of their bodies, which gives them a feminine look, although the peasants are aware that they are males. In some places, however, males are considered to be the same queens, only older, which explains why their abdomens are smaller, hence the name “old men” (viejitos). As for “big-headed ants” (cabezones), these are the soldier workers described earlier, distinguished by their large heads and mandibles.

Municipalities / Castes

Males

Virgin queen

Wingless queen

Soldier worker

Aratoca

“Old men” / “Airplane”

“Big-bottomed” / “Queen”

“Little dog”

“Big-headed ant”

Barichara

Curití

Guadalupe

“Little girl”

Palmar

Oiba

Simacota

Socorro

Villanueva

“Airplane”

“Little female dog”

Table 1. Vernacular names for the different castes of big-bottomed ants in Santander. Source: Prepared by the authors using data from the study.

Nuptial Flight

An ant colony typically reaches maturity after about three years of growth. At this stage, the queen starts producing males and virgin queens destined to establish new colonies. These reproductive ants leave the colony in large swarms to mate at high altitudes—helping spread the population’s dispersal—in a process known as the nuptial flight. This event occurs during periods of heavy rainfall, as the humidity and loosened soil create ideal conditions for the fertilized new queens to dig and establish new nests (Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990).

Before leaving the nest, future queens carry a fragment of the fungus cultivated in their parent colony in their infrabuccal pocket, which they use to start a new fungal garden in the colony they establish. During the nuptial flight, males and virgin queens from different colonies mate, enabling genetic recombination. Finally, the queen carefully selects a location protected from predators, drought, and excess moisture to found the new colony (Hölldobler & Wilson, 1990; Passera & Aron, 2005).

As we can see, big-bottomed ants play a crucial role in the reproduction and development of new colonies. The queens are responsible for building new nests and laying eggs that give rise to all the castes within the colony.

Local Knowledge, Identity, and Heritage

Collecting big-bottomed ants is more labor-intensive than it might appear. Farmers, who are the primary collectors, must know when the nuptial flight will occur, as this is the only time these ants can be caught since they spend the rest of their lives several meters below the surface. During the anticipated nuptial flight, a large number of queens emerge to reproduce.

However, there is another limitation to consider. The nuptial flight occurs only four or five times a year at the start of the rainy season, from late March to early June, and may extend into July. As a result, collecting these insects has unique characteristics that set it apart from harvesting other resources, such as agricultural crops, where collection periods are less fleeting and more predictable. Therefore, much of the local knowledge among collectors has been used to predict the nuptial flight and gain access to the desired resource.

Forecasting the nuptial flight relies on local knowledge gained through farmers’ careful observation of their environment. Collectors point out that it is only possible to know when the nuptial flight will happen a few hours in advance, so they must watch for several signs. These include climatic cycles and the biological behavior of both big-bottomed ants and other species, which is far more complex than simply going to the nest and grabbing the queens before they “fly away.”

The first factor to consider is the weather. Collectors know that the initial rains of the winter season mark the start of the planting period and also signal the beginning of the big-bottomed ant season. For the ants to fly, heavy rain must fall for three or four consecutive days, followed by a day of mild sunlight. The ideal, they say, is a resolana, a little sunshine with the presence of clouds, meaning that solar radiation is not very strong. However, meteorology alone is not enough. Days before the nuptial flight, the leaf-cutter ants (workers and soldiers) clear the vegetation above and around the nest to remove any obstacles that might hinder the flight of the reproductive ants (males and queens). Once the area is cleared, the nest entrances become easily visible. Farmers regularly monitor these sites, both during the day and at night, to observe other nest behaviors. This behavior, called “to get unsettled” (alborotarse) and “to get excited” (chinearse), indicates that a large group of soldier ants, workers, and “little girls” (males) are very agitated outside the nests (Aguilera-Espinosa Field Diary, 2019 and 2022).

In addition to observing the behavior of the big-bottomed ants, farmers also rely on knowledge gained from other animals. The night before the expected nuptial flight, two insects serve as indicators. The first are ants very similar to the big-bottomed ant, known locally as “hairy-headed ants” (montarascas), which is another Atta species, Atta cephalotes (Linnaeus, 1758), and the second are “black termites” (comejenes negros).1 The nests of hairy-headed ants are more common in forested areas. They also conduct a nuptial flight, but unlike the big-bottomed ants, it occurs at night. They are generally not consumed in Santander, where big-bottomed ants are preferred, but their consumption has been recorded in Mexico (Escamilla-Prado et al., 2012; Ramos-Elorduy et al., 2008). As for the termites, they also perform a nuptial flight for reproduction, but it happens in the afternoon. Both nuptial flights are the long-awaited signals that it will be possible to “catch big-bottomed ants” (coger culonas) the next day (Aguilera-Espinosa Field Diary, 2022).

As shown, the body of knowledge is complex and relates not only to the behavior of this species and its capture but also to other species. It involves extensive observations of the environment, including the climate. Although this knowledge has not been made visible or recognized, we can affirm that it constitutes intangible cultural heritage.

We have already discussed when and how, but collecting insects also requires knowing where. Although the answer might seem obvious since the big-bottomed ants clearly leave their nests, an interesting point came up when talking to collectors: “The ant nests are not a property,” “The nests belong to God,” “They belong to no one” (Aguilera-Espinosa Field Diary, 2019 and 2022), because no one cultivates or tends to them, unlike coffee, cassava, or cocoa crops.2 These statements came up during our discussion, which mainly means that the first person to reach the nest would have the right to collect from it. Usually, the nuptial flight occurs between 9 am and 3 pm, but many people arrive early in the morning or even stay overnight near the nests to secure access. This was not the case in the past. The practice of reserving nests began around 20 or 25 years ago. Previously, people would arrive between 6 am and 8 am and find a nest where they could collect big-bottomed ants without needing to reserve it first. In other words, the collection was not as systematic as it is now. This is much more difficult today due to the increased trade and value of big-bottomed ants.

During the nuptial flight, many queens emerge to mate in the air before returning to bury themselves in the soil to establish new nests. Humans are not their only predators; animals, especially birds, also try to take advantage of this flight to eat them. Collectors catch them by hand and place them in plastic containers. In the past, they often used containers made from the hard rind of Crescentia fruit (Bignoniaceae) (chuchos). The soldier ants fiercely defend the nest and deliver painful bites. The collectors, for their part, use quick hand movements to grab the coveted big-bottomed ants and swiftly withdraw to avoid the powerful bites of the big-headed ants. However, this is not enough: the collectors cannot stay over the nest for long because the queens will not come out of their burrows if they see their hunters, so they must remain constantly mobile and hide their presence. All of this happens under the blazing sun, which makes the physical effort even more difficult. For this reason, collectors always wear hats, long-sleeved shirts, and rubber boots to prevent the ants from climbing onto their feet (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Collecting big-bottomed ants in Santander. Photo credit: Orlando Aguilera-Espinosa, 2023.

Upon returning home, the ants are washed, their heads (el pico or beak), wings, and legs are removed, and they are roasted. According to Doña Cecilia, a merchant from Barichara, “the ants release a little fat when they are roasted” and “to get them properly roasted, they need two hours on the fire” (Césard and Katz Field Diary, 2018). She adds: “It is not good to fry them because, first, they do not have the same flavor and, second, after a month they go bad [they become rancid]; for this reason, it is better to toast them.” Well-roasted, the ants can be preserved for several months. They are generally eaten with rice, cassava, or as a snack. In Barichara, “in the past, they would wrap roasted ants in a corn leaf and mix them with yuca, corn, or arepa [flatbread made of maize] to give them to the children; that was their morning snack” (Doña Gladys; Césard and Katz Field Diary, 2018).

Ana María, a 72-year-old woman from rural Santander, recalls that ants were mainly collected for family consumption when she was a child. After gathering them, they were roasted in clay griddles (tiestos), which are also used for making arepas, over the heat of wood-burning stoves. They were then stored in chuchos or in clay or glass containers and eaten gradually over days or even months. Only small quantities were occasionally sold (Aguilera-Espinosa Field Diary, 2019) (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Clay pot and containers made of the hard rind of Crescentia fruit (chuchos) in a crafts shop in Guane, Santander. Photo credit: Esther Katz, 2023.

As Rosalba and Pedro, aged 78 and 60 respectively, point out, in their childhood they collected and ate them as an “exquisite snack,” “like a banquet” (Aguilera-Espinosa Field Diary, 2019). Similarly, in more than a hundred exchanges and conversations with collectors, merchants, and consumers, there is a shared understanding that the tradition of eating big-bottomed ants is very old, that it persists to this day, and that, although it was not strictly considered a formal dish, it has been and continues to be a highly valued food for its unique flavor.

Several interviewees mention that the tradition of eating big-bottomed ants originates from the Guane people. According to sources, these ants were called copricó in the Guane language. As Martínez Villalba (1973) and Santamaría Bueno (2006) explain, this word means “nuptial” or “marital food.” Besides their culinary use, these ants were part of rituals, such as marriage ceremonies, and were used as remedies for ailments like malaria and headaches.

Currently, culinary innovations are emerging in regional restaurants, where big-bottomed ants are used to make sauces that typically accompany cuts of meat in elaborate dishes or added to wafers and ice cream. Chefs in the capital and other major cities have also created new ant-based recipes. Some have featured their recipes on television programs like MasterChef.

However, big-bottomed ants are more than just a prized delicacy; they are part of Santander’s popular culture. Their image appears in sculptures, such as those in Bucaramanga (Figure 3), the department’s capital; in El Gallineral Park in San Gil, the city with the largest ant trade; and in Barichara, a colonial tourist town near San Gil. Roasted ants are sold in the region’s cities and towns (Figure 4), especially at candy or craft stands or shops, where wooden, stuffed, or plastic replicas are also available. Their images are used in transportation company logos (Figure 5); folk songs and verses are sung by farmers who gather them. In 2023, the first Royal Big-Bottomed Ant Festival was held in San Gil (Figure 6), demonstrating that the people of Santander see big-bottomed ants as part of their identity.

Figure 3. Sculpture of a big-bottomed ant in a shopping mall in Bucaramanga. Photo credit: Orlando Aguilera-Espinosa, 2019.

Figure 4. Roasted ants for sale at the Bucaramanga airport. Photo credit: Esther Katz, 2023.

Figure 5. The Cotrasangil transport company’s logo, visible on its buses. Photo credit: Esther Katz, 2023.

Figure 6. Royal Big-Bottomed Ant Festival, San Gil. Photo credit: Orlando Aguilera-Espinosa, 2023.

Furthermore, at the institutional level, Colombia implemented a policy to protect and promote traditional cuisines. The Ministry of Culture published 17 volumes on this subject (Ministerio de Cultura, 2012b). Among these, one volume outlines the goals of this policy (Ministerio de Cultura, 2012a, Vol. 17), while others discuss the history of Colombian food or current regional cuisines. Big-bottomed ants are mentioned in two volumes that include chapters on Santander cuisine (Ordóñez Caicedo, 2012, Vol. 9, 288-289; Sánchez & Sánchez, 2012, Vol. 10, 157). Volume 17 even recommends that, as part of the Ministry of Commerce, Industry, and Tourism’s Action Plan, five designations of origin be initially developed for local food products, including big-bottomed ants.

From Family Consumption to Seasonal Income

Previously, ants were sold locally or regionally, but in recent decades, the migration of Santander residents to other parts of the country or abroad has expanded trade. Some merchants say they started by sending a few kilograms of ants to their emigrated relatives and later coordinated shipments from multiple families to the same destinations. Today, big-bottomed ants are sold in Colombia’s main cities, in miscellaneous stores (such as those selling alcoholic beverages and regional or imported specialty foods) or at tourist spots. For example, in Bogotá, street vendors sell small bags of roasted ants in the historic center: in the central plaza, in front of the Museo del Oro, and near the cable car station that ascends to the Monserrate sanctuary. Additionally, as mentioned, they are sold throughout the department of Santander, which features major tourist attractions like the colonial town of Barichara and the Chicamocha Canyon, south of Bucaramanga.

In April 2023, in Santander, a pound of live big-bottomed ants was sold in rural settlements3 for between 50,000 and 60,000 pesos (roughly US$12.5 to US$15),4 but in larger towns or small cities like Socorro or San Gil, the price was around 70,000 pesos (about US$17.5). If you want to buy roasted ants, the price exceeds 200,000 pesos (about US$50) since two pounds of raw ants are reduced to one pound of roasted ants.5 According to merchants and collectors, prices have risen significantly over the past two decades, and we have verified this increase. In 2019, a pound of live ants was roughly 40,000 pesos; in 2023, they traded at about 60,000 pesos. This represents a 50% increase in just five years. However, the price does not always follow this pattern, as it fluctuates, like in any market, according to supply and demand. In this case, according to those interviewed, the factor that fluctuates the most is supply. The quantities of big-bottomed ants collected can vary significantly from year to year. Even within the same year, the number of queens emerging from their nests varies from one nuptial flight to another, sometimes just a few days apart. Still, the key point is that prices have risen over the last two decades.

This price increase has led farmers, who are the primary collectors, to focus on capturing the largest possible number of big-bottomed ants. Consequently, new dynamics have emerged around access to nests, such as reserving ant nests the night before the nuptial flight. Additionally, due to low incomes in rural communities and the rapidly changing market— which is driving higher demand and, consequently, higher prices—farmers have gradually decided to collect fewer ants for personal use and sell more to earn extra income. Data indicates that between 60% and 80% of the ants collected are sold, with the remainder kept for family consumption.

Indeed, a single farmer can earn an average of 240,000 pesos (about US$60) in just one day of collecting big-bottomed ants, which is roughly equivalent to six days of work as a day laborer. If we consider that several members of the same family participate in the collection, including children, the total value per household can double or triple, making commercial collection very appealing. Since the collection is seasonal, the income is temporary and often seen as a bonus to buy food, school supplies, and more. Big-bottomed ants have thus become a luxury food that increasingly eludes those who have maintained the tradition of eating them and for whom this food is most meaningful.

Leaf-Cutter Ants as Pests

As mentioned earlier, leaf-cutter ants are also considered pests because of the damage they cause to crops. In fact, most scientific studies on Atta ants, or “leaf-cutter” ants, focus on this issue. Although they are not herbivores in the traditional sense, leaf-cutter ants are responsible for the highest rate of defoliation in tropical rainforests, harvesting up to 17% of the total leaf production (Cherrett et al., 1989). Still, despite these effects, little research has been done to measure the damage they cause in South America, especially in Colombia.

Depending on nest density, leaf-cutter ants can collect between 84 and 8,775 kilograms of dry plant material per hectare per year—amounts that far exceed the grass consumption of cows under similar conditions (Cherrett et al., 1974, 1989); therefore, their impact is significant. Moreover, their defoliation is not limited to a specific plant, as they attack a variety of crops, including cassava, corn, coffee, cocoa, citrus fruits (the main crops in Santander), and trees used for reforestation. This has led to their classification as primary pests in many countries, causing serious effects in Colombia, especially in departments such as Antioquia, Valle del Cauca, Santander, and Cundinamarca (Montoya-Lerma et al., 2012; Ramos & Patiño, 2002).

In Santander, several farmers fumigate ant nests when they are found near or within their crops, which, according to some interviewees,6 did not happen when cattle ranching was more prevalent. Although ants now sell for increasingly higher prices, they can only be collected during a short seasonal window, while crops like citrus fruits, coffee, and cocoa are harvested year-round. Farmers then face the dilemma of whether to use pesticides to prevent damage. They experience a contradiction: they both collect and fumigate the ants. Today, many ant nests are no longer found in crop areas but in regions dominated by extensive livestock farming or where access is difficult due to steep slopes. Additionally, collectors note that fewer queens emerge from the nests than before; some estimate a decrease of nearly half over the past 20 years. Possibly, old nests were eradicated, and the nests currently exploited are smaller because they are younger (Césard & Katz, 2019). Facing rising commercial demand and declining resources, some traders buy hairy-headed ants (montarascas) and pass them off as big-bottomed ants or mix them with the latter. They also use big-bottomed ants collected from other regions, especially in the Llanos Orientales. However, connoisseurs (locals, traders, and collectors) do not appreciate the flavor of hairy-headed ants or big-bottomed ants from other regions. They consider the flavor of hairy-headed ants to be of lower quality, describing them as “drier” than big-bottomed ants, which are “greasier” (Césard and Katz Field Diary, 2018). Conversely, the local population believes that eating montarascas can cause hearing loss, although this belief has diminished over the years (Aguilera-Espinosa Field Diary, 2019).

According to González Arenas and Rodríguez Gerena (2006), ant collection and agriculture could complement each other because the nuptial flight occurs during planting time, when farmers still lack agricultural resources. Perhaps the example of regions in Mexico could serve as a model, where Atta ants are also eaten, and other methods are used to prevent or lessen damage. This is the case studied in the municipality of Tepoztlán, Morelos, where the use of tree species was observed as a way of distraction to reduce or even prevent damage by various insects, such as chicatana or cuatalata ants, which are also of the genus Atta. In this area, the local population learned which vegetation the chicatana ants prefer, and before the nuptial flight—when the most damage occurs—they cut branches of these species to place them near the cornfields or ant nests to avoid damage and even, in a way, protect the natural resource (Ayala Enríquez et al., 2018).

However, beyond these perceptions, leaf-cutting ants play a crucial role in nutrient recycling and, therefore, in various ecosystems. Leaf-cutting ants, along with termites, are classified by some researchers as ecological engineers. Thanks to the creation of complex underground structures (ant nests), they promote physical and chemical changes that lead to higher decomposition rates and boost soil fertility. On one hand, the colony tunnels increase aeration, improve soil porosity, and facilitate nutrient exchange across different soil levels by transporting material from deeper profiles to the surface. Additionally, the plant material transported by worker ants, the fungi they cultivate, excrement, and dead ants all supply nutrients to the soil (Etter & Botero, 1990; Cortés-Pérez & León-Sicard, 2003). This may be an argument against nest poisoning.

Figure 7. Black coffee, arepa, and ants, Aratoca,Santander. Photo credit: Orlando Aguilera-Espinosa, 2019.

Conclusion

Food heritage acts as a tool to protect knowledge, techniques, and foods because of their uniqueness and cultural importance. Big-bottomed ants are, without a doubt, part of the heritage of the department of Santander that has transcended pre-Hispanic times, from the indigenous Guane people to the region’s current residents. They are a sought-after food that is now a symbol of identity for the people of Santander, influencing multiple cultural aspects.

However, patrimonialization in this case has been driven from a tourism perspective without considering that this food comes from collecting insects that can be classified as wild, as they cannot currently be farmed. Therefore, a steady production of queens cannot be guaranteed to meet any demand. As we discussed, the increase in insect consumption is linked to the migration of Santander residents, but the impact of tourism has also caused a significant rise in prices over the past 15 years. Nonetheless, these are not the only factors. It is a complex system that is also affected by the reduction in supply due to the decline of ant nests. The main causes include habitat loss and pesticide use for pest control.

Food heritage can serve as a valuable tool when it emphasizes aspects beyond tourism, highlighting the positive roles of Atta ants in the ecosystem and demonstrating how culinary practices can offer a different perspective. This approach can help change perceptions of insects as pests and support species and ecosystem preservation by promoting reduced pesticide use, as seen in Mexico. Clearly, more research is needed in Colombia on this topic, but Mexico’s experience shows that coexistence with other species, even those we consider pests, is possible.

Finally, food heritage is not static. On the contrary, it evolves, as seen by the variety of culinary innovations incorporating big-bottomed ants into different products, from ice creams to sophisticated dishes served in high-end restaurants. With this in mind, we must ask: How will big-bottomed ants be eaten in a few years? Moreover, if the decline in ant nests continues, will future generations still get to enjoy a plate of big-bottomed ants with cassava?

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    * About this paper. The information was gathered during several fieldwork sessions carried out between 2018 and 2023, totaling approximately nine months. In 2018, from October to November, Nicolas Césard and Esther Katz conducted an exploratory mission as part of the COMINSECT project (“Edible insects traded in Latin America: sustainable exploitation or overexploitation?”), coordinated by themselves and funded by the Department of Man and Environment (Homme et Environnement) at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris (MNHN, France). In 2019, Orlando Aguilera-Espinosa conducted fieldwork between April and June for his master’s thesis at MNHN, funded by UMR 208 PALOC (a joint IRD/CNRS/MNHN research unit). In 2022, during February and April, Orlando Aguilera-Espinosa carried out a research trip funded by PALOC. Finally, in 2023, under the LATINSECT project (“Heritage, local knowledge, and innovation: insect consumption in Latin America”), coordinated by Esther Katz and funded by the French National Research Agency (Agence Nationale de la Recherche, ANR, project ANR-21-CE27-0021), Orlando Aguilera-Espinosa undertook a research trip from April to May, and Esther Katz in August. All interviewees were previously informed of the research objectives and gave their oral or written consent to record the discussions and exchanges.

     About the translation. The article was translated into English by Erika Tanacs with the authors’ permission, supported by funding from the Vice-Presidency for Research and Creation at Universidad de los Andes (Colombia), through the call for article translations for publication in Naturaleza y Sociedad. Desafíos Medioambientales (2025). The original article was published in Spanish: Aguilera-Espinosa, O., Katz, E. y Césard, N. (2024). Las hormigas culonas: entre patrimonio biocultural y plaga (Santander, Colombia). Naturaleza y Sociedad. Desafíos Medioambientales, 8, 104–125. https://doi.org/10.53010/YCMP4466

    ** Orlando Aguilera-Espinosa. PhD candidate at the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle (MNHN, Paris, France), working under the supervision of Nicolas Césard and Esther Katz, Doctoral School 227 “Natural and Human Sciences: Evolution and Ecology.” Specific contribution to the development of this article: writing most of the manuscript. Email: orlandoae@gmail.com. ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5584-0734

    *** Esther Katz. PhD in Social Anthropology from Université Paris Nanterre (France). HDR at the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle (MNHN, Paris, France), Emeritus Research Director at IRD, member of the joint IRD/CNRS/MNHN team “Local Heritage, Environment, and Globalization” (UMR 208 PALOC IRD/CNRS/MNHN). Visiting Researcher at the Institute of Social Research, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (IIS-UNAM, Mexico) in 2022-2024. Her latest publications include “A Worldwide Overview of the Status and Prospects of Edible Insect Production,” a co-authored article published in Entomologia Generalis 44(1) (2024), https://doi.org/10.1127/entomologia/2023/2279; and “Capsicum annuum L. var. annuum Capsicum annuum L. var. glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill Capsicum chinense Jacq. Capsicum frutescens L. Capsicum lanceolatum (Greenm.) C.V. Morton & Standley Capsicum pubescens Ruiz & Pav. Capsicum rhomboideum (Dunal) Kuntze Solanaceae,” a co-authored chapter in the book Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Mexico (Springer, 2023, 1179–1195), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77089-5_32-1. Specific contribution to the development of this article: drafting part of the manuscript and revising it. Email: esther.katz@ird.fr. ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3620-9327

    **** Nicolas Césard. PhD in Social Anthropology from École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (France). Associate Professor at the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle (MNHN, Paris, France), member of the “Eco-anthropology” (UMR 7206 MNHN/CNRS/Université Paris Cité) joint team. His recent publications include “An emic understanding of honey bees and their environment: attracting bee swarms to nest on rafters in Belitung, Indonesia,” an article published in Anthropozoologica, 57(10) (2022), https://doi.org/10.5252/anthropozoologica2022v57a10; and “Les insectes: tous les savoirs, toutes les histoires, tous les pouvoirs, tous les espoirs,” a book co-authored with Bruno Didier (Terre vivante & Plume de carotte, 2025). Specific contribution to the development of this article: reader and proofreader. Email: ncesard@mnhn.fr. ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9909-1920

  1. 1 This insect has not yet been identified, but it apparently belongs to the order Isoptera.

  2. 2 According to 16th-century chronicles written by Jiménez de Quesada and Lesmes de Espinosa, as cited in Martínez-Villalba (1973) and González Colino (1982), during the time of the Guane people, the nests of big-bottomed ants were enclosed by tree branches. These authors believe that the enclosures were meant to mark ownership of the nests, which had previously been assigned by the Guane chieftains to each family. However, Navas Corona (2010) argues that the purpose of enclosing the ant nests was not to restrict access to them, but rather to feed the ants. Although the exact reasons for the enclosures are uncertain, it shows that the Guane managed the nests and that the ants held significance for them.

  3. 3 A rural settlement (vereda) is the smallest administrative territorial division in Colombia.

  4. 4 In 2023, about 4,000 Colombian pesos exchanged for US$1.

  5. 5 The weight is significantly reduced due to moisture loss during roasting, as well as from removing the head, legs, and wings.

  6. 6 An analysis of the change in coverage in the study area is planned.