Teaching Styles: A Game-Based Learning Intervention*

Ana María Velásquez

Faculty of Education, Universidad de los Andes, Colombia

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6868-6198

Jorge Sted Trujillo

Faculty of Education, Universidad de los Andes, Colombia

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6282-1205

Lina María Saldarriaga

Aulas en Paz, Colombia

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6804-2395

Daniel Felipe Espitia

Faculty of Education, Universidad de los Andes, Colombia

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8168-4878

ABSTRACT

This research article presents the results of an evaluative and mixed instrumental case study that aimed to assess how the pedagogical use of the “¡Aye!” game could contribute to developing an authoritative teaching style. An intervention based on game-based learning was implemented and evaluated with thirteen teachers (three men) from Bogotá, Colombia. Information was collected using a self-report questionnaire on teaching styles (before and after the intervention), observations (during the intervention), and in-depth interviews (six months after the intervention). Descriptive statistics were used to analyze data from the questionnaires and qualitative content analysis for data from observations and interviews. The results showed that the participating teachers reported an increase in their attitudes and behaviors associated with the authoritative teaching style and that the game favored their capacity to lead their classrooms, promoting student participation and autonomy, as well as the teachers’ positive affect toward students. The results are discussed in light of their implications for innovation in teacher training processes related to classroom management skills.

KEYWORDS

teacher authority, educational games, game-based learning, teacher education

Estilos docentes: una intervención de aprendizaje basado en juegos

RESUMEN

Este artículo de investigación presenta los resultados de un estudio de caso instrumental de carácter evaluativo y mixto que tuvo como objetivo evaluar cómo el uso pedagógico del juego ¡Aye! puede contribuir al desarrollo de estilos docentes autoritativos. Se implementó y evaluó una intervención fundamentada en el aprendizaje basado en juegos con trece docentes (tres hombres, diez mujeres) en la ciudad de Bogotá (Colombia). Se recogió información a partir de un cuestionario de autorreporte de estilos docentes (antes y después de la intervención), observaciones (durante la intervención) y entrevistas en profundidad (seis meses después de la intervención). Los datos de los cuestionarios se analizaron a través de estadísticas descriptivas, y las observaciones y entrevistas, a través de análisis cualitativo de contenido. Los resultados mostraron que los docentes reportaron un aumento en sus actitudes y comportamientos asociados con estilos docentes autoritativos, y que el juego favoreció la capacidad de los docentes para liderar sus aulas promoviendo la participación y la autonomía de los estudiantes, así como el afecto positivo de los docentes hacia sus estudiantes. Los resultados se discuten a la luz de sus implicaciones para la innovación en procesos de formación docente relacionados con competencias de manejo de aula.

PALABRAS CLAVE

autoridad del docente, juego educativo, aprendizaje basado en juegos, formación de docentes

Estilos de ensino: uma intervenção de aprendizagem baseada em jogos

RESUMO

Este artigo de investigação apresenta os resultados de um estudo de caso avaliativo e instrumental misto que teve como objetivo avaliar como a utilização pedagógica do jogo ¡Aye! pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento de estilos de ensino autoritários. Foi implementada e avaliada uma intervenção de aprendizagem baseada em jogos com treze professores (três homens e dez mulheres) na cidade de Bogotá (Colômbia). A informação foi recolhida através de um questionário de autoavaliação dos estilos de ensino (antes e depois da intervenção), de observações (durante a intervenção) e de entrevistas aprofundadas (seis meses após a intervenção). Os dados dos questionários foram analisados através de estatísticas descritivas, e as observações e entrevistas através de análise qualitativa de conteúdo. Os resultados mostraram que os professores relataram um aumento das suas atitudes e comportamentos associados a estilos de ensino autoritários, e que o jogo melhorou a capacidade dos professores para liderar as suas salas de aula, promovendo a participação e a autonomia dos alunos, bem como o afeto positivo dos professores em relação aos seus alunos. Os resultados são discutidos à luz das suas implicações para a inovação nos processos de formação de professores relacionados com as competências de gestão da sala de aula.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE

autoridade do professor, jogo educativo, aprendizagem baseada em jogos, formação de professores

Introduction

Literature highlights the importance of the role of teachers2 as agents of socialization that significantly influence the development and well-being of their students (Ansari et al., 2020; Bernstein, 2021; García-Moya, 2020). One way in which teachers exert that influence is through the style with which they manage their classrooms. Like parents3, teachers can use four teaching styles4: authoritative (also known as democratic), authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful (Barnas, 2001; Basset et al., 2013; Walker, 2008, 2009; Wentzel, 2002). Several studies have shown significant advantages for children and youth exposed to the authoritative styles of teachers (Aldhafri & Alrajhi, 2014; Baker et al., 2009; Dever & Karabenick, 2011; Wentzel, 2002). This makes it necessary to explore how teachers can develop an authoritative style in classroom management. In line with the above, this study aims to evaluate how a game-based teacher training intervention can promote teachers’ authoritative style.

Teaching Styles

The literature on parenting styles has developed a model of authority based on two dimensions of parental behavior: responsiveness and demandingness. Responsiveness refers to behaviors of acceptance, expression of affection, and interest in satisfying children’s needs; similarly, demandigness refers to practices used by parents to regulate children’s behavior and demand maturity and autonomy (Baumrind, 1991). Parental styles have been defined based on the intersection of these dimensions. Baumrind (1966) originally proposed three styles: authoritative (high in both responsiveness and demandigness), authoritarian (high in demandigness and low in responsiveness), and permissive (high in responsiveness and low in demandigness). Later, Maccoby and Martin (1983) included a fourth style—negligent (low in responsiveness and low in demandigness). The authoritative parenting style has been found to be positively associated with children’s emotional, social, and academic development (Baumrind, 1991; Pinquart & Kauser, 2018).

In recent decades, researchers in the educational field have transferred the framework of parenting styles to teacher-student relationships (Barnas, 2001; Basset et al., 2013; Walker, 2008, 2009; Wentzel, 2002). Studies have focused on three teaching styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. The authoritarian style affirms that character is formed based on respect for authority and that the smooth functioning of the classroom depends on strict compliance with rules. These teachers seek to maintain control over what happens in their classrooms and ensure that activities are carried out as planned. They tend to have a vertical power relationship with their students, prioritizing order and discipline in the classroom.

Permissive behaviors are those in which teachers privilege the closeness and horizontality of the relationship with their students over structure in the classroom. Although they express concern for their students’ interests, seeking to please them and give them freedom, they tend to neglect the classroom structure to avoid constraining students. Thus, they avoid establishing classroom rules; if they do, they do not bother to enforce them.

Authoritative behaviors are those in which teachers are concerned about the emotional well-being of their students and, at the same time, have high expectations about their academic performance and maturity. These teachers are attentive to their students’ needs, so they listen to and support them when they have difficulties, treat them kindly, and show them that they value them. They also trust their students’ reasoning abilities; thus, they explain the reasons for their decisions and encourage participation in classroom decisions. Therefore, seeking to regulate student behavior, authoritative teachers favor the collective construction of agreements and are firm but respectful when it comes to demanding compliance.

Previous studies have shown evidence of the positive effect of an authoritative teaching style on students’ social, emotional, and academic development (Dever & Karabenick, 2011; Kim et al., 2021; Kloo et al., 2023; Wentzel, 2002). This may be due to the positive association of authoritative style with intrinsic motivation (Aldhafri & Alrajhi, 2014) and student satisfaction with school (Baker et al., 2009). Despite the relevance of these results, few studies have tested teacher training programs to promote authoritative styles.

Game-Based Learning

Game-based learning (GBL) is a promising pedagogical strategy for developing complex skills and attitudes in people, such as social-emotional skills and twenty-first-century skills (Plass et al., 2015; Qian & Clark, 2016; Romero et al., 2015). GBL is understood as an experience in which game mechanics promote skill learning and, through problem-solving, give players the perception of achievement (Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004). Educational games can pose complex problems and challenges at an appropriate difficulty level, allowing active learning through multiple attempts and continuous feedback on the player’s actions (Gee, 2007; Squire & Dikkers, 2011). In addition, games facilitate the engagement of players from affective, behavioral, cognitive, and sociocultural perspectives (Plass et al., 2015).

Previous studies have shown evidence of the effectiveness of games in developing complex skills (Hamari et al., 2016), such as teamwork (Gilliam et al. 2017; Qian & Clark, 2016), critical thinking, communication, and creativity (Qian & Clark, 2016). According to several researchers, the potential of GBL can be increased to the extent that the experience includes guided reflection opportunities for the player, allowing them to reevaluate their actions and transfer their learnings to real contexts (Boghian et al., 2019; Garris et al., 2002; Westera, 2019).

Based on the above, this study implemented and evaluated the potential of a short GBL intervention to promote the development of an authoritative teaching style. The intervention was based on an learning activity with the “¡Aye!” game, followed by a guided reflection. In this cooperative game, players must work as a team to achieve a common goal. In addition, the guided reflection allows participants to consider how they use this leadership in the classroom. Thus, the research question explored in this study was: How can a game-based learning intervention promote an authoritative teaching style?

Methodology

Design and Procedure

This paper presents the formative evaluation (Scriven, 1967) of the proposed pedagogical intervention conducted through a case study (Johnson & Christensen, 2014), in which qualitative and quantitative information was collected and analyzed. This was a sequential mixed study, which began with collecting quantitative information; then, throughout the experience, qualitative information was gathered on the process, and, finally, quantitative and qualitative data were collected to evaluate the outcome.

The particular experience of a group of students in a university course was taken as an instrumental case (Stake, 1995), a case that, when studied in depth, allows for understanding a broader phenomenon. In this sense, the case study sought to identify possible benefits and opportunities to improve the training experience, aiming to comprehend how effective teacher training processes can be carried out to develop classroom management skills.

The present study was conducted in a virtual course on classroom management offered at a Colombian university as part of a graduate program in education. The intervention consisted of implementing the digital version of the “¡Aye!” game, hosted on the Tabletopia platform5, the rules of which can be found on the publisher’s web platform6. In general terms, it is a cooperative game that occurs in the scenario of a ship under attack by a sea monster. Players distribute roles of the captain and crew members. The captain uses their leadership to define the attack or defense strategies in each round, and the crew members can vote for or against the strategies proposed by the captain. Thus, the game allows participants to test their ability to exercise authoritative leadership.

The intervention was implemented in two class sessions of the course, each lasting three hours. The first session was dedicated to developing the game, and the second to guided reflection. For the game session, four teams were created, each led by a teacher assigned as captain. The other participants, who acted as crew members, were randomly assigned to each team. Each team conducted the activity in a virtual Teams room.

The formative evaluation component of the intervention was developed in four stages. In the first, the participants answered a questionnaire that evaluated their teaching styles. In the second moment (two weeks after applying the questionnaire), the game session took place, accompanied by a research assistant for each team, who filled out an observation matrix on the performance of the game captain. In a third moment (one week after the intervention), a guided reflection session was held with all the players, led by the director of the study (first author). This session focused on connecting the game experience with teaching practice. At the last moment (six months after the intervention), the initial questionnaire was applied again to all participants. Additionally, a semi-structured interview was conducted with the game captains to deepen their perceptions of the experience.

Context and Participants

Twenty-one teachers were invited to participate in the research after being informed about the study objectives, benefits, and risks. Among the invited teachers, seventeen (three men and fourteen women) participated at different times of the study (thirteen at the beginning and seventeen at the end). Among them, four participants (one male and three females), who reported practicing as teachers at that time, agreed to assume the role of game captains in the activity. This subgroup consisted of a female instructor of a university student brigade, a female social science teacher from a private school, a female university teaching assistant, and a male teacher of music courses for young people. Participants were informed about the purpose of the study and asked to sign an informed consent form before starting data collection. This procedure was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty where the study was conducted.

Data Collection Techniques

Self-Report Questionnaire of Teaching Styles

A questionnaire was used to evaluate teaching styles, and it consisted of a) a self-report scale that measured teachers’ attitudes and behaviors in classroom management and b) an open-ended questionnaire to inquire about their perceptions. This questionnaire was applied to all participants before and after the intervention, and its structure is detailed below.

The teaching styles scale was developed by the research team and sought to measure attitudes and behaviors associated with three styles: authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. Six multiple-choice questions were employed to evaluate teachers’ behavior, where participants selected one of three options for action in typical classroom management situations. An example is: “When my students break some classroom rule, a) I apply a sanction in a firm and strict manner so that students understand that they cannot break the rules (authoritarian style); b) I prefer to overlook the rule breaking to maintain a good relationship with my students (permissive style); c) I consistently apply consequences that allow my students to repair the damage caused by the rule breaking (authoritative style).” For each participant, the number of options they selected from each style was summed, leading to each participant scoring from 0 to 6 for the behavioral component of each of the three styles.

To assess attitudes, teachers reported their level of agreement with fifteen items or statements on a Likert scale from 0 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree). Each teaching style was represented by five items. The following is an example for each style: “Teachers should try to give their students everything they ask for so that they are happy” (permissive); “Students comply better with classroom rules when the reasons why they were established are explained to them” (authoritative); and “Teachers are the ones who really know what is best for their students” (authoritarian). The values of the items corresponding to each subscale were averaged to calculate the scores for each style; thus, each participant obtained a score from 0 to 3 for the attitudinal component of each style.

Regarding the open-ended question, in the initial application of the questionnaire, participants were presented with a video explaining the three teaching styles and then asked to answer the question: “What is your current teaching style in the classroom like?”. In the final application of the questionnaire, they were given the following instruction: “Describe whether you have had any changes in the way you manage your classroom and if these changes occurred as a result of your experience with the ‘¡Aye!’ game.”

Observation of Leadership Styles During a Game Session

To analyze the opportunities that the “¡Aye!” game offers participants to develop an authoritative teaching style, a structured observation matrix was designed and filled out by the research assistants who accompanied each team in the virtual room during the game session. This matrix focused on describing the performance of the participants who acted as captains and consisted of two dimensions, each with two subdimensions: responsiveness (affectivity/bonding; interest in the other) and demandingess (participation/autonomy; reasoning). Each subdimension was observed and assessed using a checklist containing positive and negative indicators for the captains’ performance (see examples of these indicators in Table 1).

Table 1. Examples of observation matrix indicators

Dimension Subdimension	Positive indicators	Negative indicators
Responsiveness
Affectivity/bonding	After a failed mission, they encourage crew members to persevere and keep striving.	They criticize crew members when they do not do things right.
Interest in the other	They listen to the crew members before making a decision.	They silence the crewmembers when they try to express their opinion.
Demandingess
Participation/autonomy	They invite to reach agreements on game strategies through dialogue.	They demand that crew members do things the way they want.
Reasoning	They ask everyone to discuss different options before making a decision.	They tell crewmembers what to do without explaining why.

In-Depth Interviews

After a preliminary analysis of the information from the initial questionnaire and the observation of the game, an in-depth interview was conducted individually with the game captains six months after the intervention. The interview was divided into two parts: the first sought to validate the research team’s interpretations of the observations, and the second inquired about transformations in the teaching styles of the participants. To validate the interpretations, each captain received a narrative the research team constructed based on the analysis results with the collected information, and they were asked, “To what extent does this narrative adequately reflect your experience in the game?” Based on the interview, interpretations were corroborated or adjusted. In addition, they were also asked, “Do you feel that your participation in the game experience had any influence on how you currently lead your students?” If the answer was “yes,” they were instructed to share concrete examples of how they saw those changes reflected in their practice.

Analytical Model

The information was analyzed in a general manner for all participants and in a focused way for those who participated as game captains. Descriptive, non-inferential statistical analyses were performed to evaluate the changes in the participants’ attitudes and behaviors. Participants’ averages were calculated for each subscale of the teaching styles questionnaire, and the results were contrasted before and after the intervention.

On the other hand, a deductive content analysis of the information from the open-ended question of the questionnaire sought to organize the information around previously established analytical categories (Gibbs, 2018). The transcripts were evaluated simultaneously by three researchers, who coded the texts in two phases. First, open coding was used to synthesize the content and identify central themes in the responses. Second, the codes were grouped into four previously defined analytical categories based on the subdimensions of the authoritative teaching style: a) participation/autonomy, b) reasoning, c) affectivity/bonding, and d) interest in the other. The analysis consisted of constructing a triangulated narrative. Each researcher resumed their interpretations in a report; subsequently, this information was compared through dialogue among the three researchers. As a result of this triangulation, the interpretations were integrated into a shared narrative, which sought to specify the relationship between the categories to describe and characterize the participants’ teaching styles.

The focused analyses of the questionnaires, observations, and interviews with the teachers who acted as game captains consisted of two phases. First, each of the three researchers conducted a sequential analysis of the information available for each of the four participants throughout the research process, thus constructing a narrative on their trajectory. This information was analyzed using the same procedure as the triangulated narrative, taking the three styles (authoritative, permissive, and authoritarian) as pre-established categories of analysis.

Results

To examine the potential of the intervention to promote the authoritative style of teachers, the changes in the scores of the teaching style scale, the participants’ perceptions of their learning from their experience in the “¡Aye!” game, and the particular process of the teachers who acted as captains were analyzed.

Changes in the Attitudes and Behaviors of Teachers

To analyze changes in the teachers’ attitudes related to each teaching style, the scores obtained (range = 0-3) by the thirteen participants before and after the intervention were compared using descriptive and non-inferential analyses. As shown in Figure 1, the participants reported an increase in favorable attitudes toward the authoritative style and a low decrease in their attitudes toward the permissive and authoritarian styles.

Figure 1. Changes in attitudes related to teaching style

Source: Own elaboration.

Similarly, to evaluate changes in behaviors related to each teaching style, non-inferential descriptive analyses were performed to compare the scores of the questionnaires (range = 0-6) before and after the intervention. The results in Figure 2 show an increase in authoritative behaviors reported by teachers and a minor decrease in their permissive and authoritarian behaviors.

Figure 2. Changes in behaviors related to teaching style

Source: Own elaboration.

Perceptions of the Formative Potential of the Game

To complement the results of the teaching style scale, the participants’ perceptions of how the experience in the “¡Aye!” game generated changes in their teaching practice were collected. This information was coded, taking as main categories the four subdimensions previously established for the authoritative teaching style: participation/autonomy, reasoning, affectivity/bonding, and interest in the other.

Encouraging participation and recognizing student autonomy in the classroom was the most prevalent learning in the participants’ responses. Seven of them stated that collective decision-making in the classroom became more valuable to them as a result of the intervention. In addition, they highlighted the role of communication skills, such as active listening and assertive expression, in promoting active student participation in the classroom. In this regard, one participant said: “I learned that it is important to listen assertively, that when you build together, the results are better, and that all points of view are valid since we all have different perspectives of the situation and we can contribute to the discussion to make a better decision” (Participant I). This is related to the learnings that participants reported on reasoning. Three of them indicated that the game allowed them to realize that dialogue, setting clear expectations, and explaining the teacher’s point of view are fundamental in classroom management. An example of this is the following statement: “I see that scolding is not the solution and that the most important thing is that they understand why what they are doing is important and what they are doing it for” (Participant F). In another case, one participant expressed how the “¡Aye!” game allowed her to realize that she can improve the way she reasons with her students: “I have always been very amenable to explaining the reasons why things can be done; however, I think I can continue to improve and remember that I should not always be in control” (Participant Q).

Regarding affectivity/bonding, it is noteworthy that four participants associated the construction of a participatory environment with strengthening bonds to promote stronger commitment on the part of classroom members. For example, one participant said: “I understood that discussing the relevant rules in a certain space and the consequences of not complying with them causes that those who participate feel [...] more linked and committed to comply with what was proposed, as opposed to people on whom certain rules have been imposed” (Participant M). Some of them explained that this was because opening opportunities for participation implies actively listening to students, expressing interest in them, and, in that way, strengthening their relationship. Some responses that exemplify this are: “When the leader has the ability to listen actively, communicate assertively, and take into account the position of each team member [...] they can strengthen relationships among them” (Participant B); “To be a leader, it is necessary [...] to support others, take into account their opinions, wishes, needs, etc. Also, it is essential to listen to others and reflect on the decisions made as a group” (Participant T). Table 2 presents the synthesis of the themes associated with each analytical category.

Table 2. Teachers’ perceptions of the formative potential of the gaming experience

Dimension Analytical categories	Themes
Demandingness
Participation/autonomy	Collective decision-making Communication skills
Reasoning	Dialogue Clear expectations Explanation
Responsiveness
Affectivity/bonding	Commitment
Interest in the other	Active listening

 

Finally, in the analysis of participant responses, a category related to teamwork emerged. Four participants emphasized that the game promoted cooperative leadership through teamwork, which led to focusing on the management of classroom situations for the benefit of students. In this regard, as one participant said, “Group work is much more valuable than personal recognition” (Participant E). Another participant mentioned that the experience allowed her to learn how to “think strategically for the benefit of the team, lead a team in a better way, and transfer the opportunity to make decisions for the benefit of the team” (Participant P).

Changes in the Teaching Styles of Game Captains

The experience of game captains was evaluated using a two-level qualitative analysis. The first level consisted of a sequential analysis of the experience of each captain in three moments of the intervention: a) the open-ended question of the initial questionnaire, b) game observation, and c) the final interview. This made it possible to analyze the transformations of participants regarding their teaching styles in the light of the analytical categories. The second level consisted of a cross-sectional analysis of the four cases, focusing on a synthesis of the potential and limitations of the game. The results corresponding to each level of analysis are presented below.

Sequential Analysis of Each Participant’s Process

Teacher A (female). In the initial questionnaire, this teacher identified herself with an authoritative style, stating: “[I seek] to lead with the confidence that my students can contribute to the class and that as far as I can have a horizontal relationship with them, we can build a better learning environment.” However, she also expressed concern about maintaining efficient control over the class: “I must learn to trust my students more to let go of the need for control and, on the contrary, [...] give them more agency and be able to see myself as another actor in the classroom and not as an authoritarian leader who has to impart wisdom.”

During the observation of the game, there was a progressive change in her teaching style from a more directive leadership, where she planned the strategy alone and gave instructions to each player, to a more democratic leadership, in which she promoted shared decision-making for each play. In addition, it was observed that the teacher maintained a positive affective climate in the team, highlighting the skills or luck of each player and encouraging them in the face of failures.

In the final interview, this teacher emphasized that, as a result of the game experience, she was able to reflect on the common goals that she can reinforce with her students to foster collaborative work. In this regard, she affirmed that the game helped her “reinforce the idea that there can be a common goal and that, if we all help each other, it becomes easier and easier and more and more feasible.”

Teacher B (female). In the initial questionnaire, the teacher identified herself as having a mainly authoritative style, expressing interest in “free development, the construction of social and emotional competencies, and constant concern for the well-being of her students.” She contrasted this interest with her practice as a brigade member, explaining that “because of the rules and the way this community is constituted based on military education, if a student makes a mistake, disrespects, or fails to comply with an order, they pay with physical punishment such as squats.”

Throughout the game, it was observed that she maintained a democratic leadership, seeking consensus in every decision and focusing conversations on the search for common benefits. On the other hand, the observer recorded that the teacher managed to build an affective climate in which everyone was supportive and interested in the opinions and feelings of the others.

In the closing interview, the teacher highlighted that the game allowed her to realize the importance of considering the students’ points of view, seeking the collective construction of rules, recognizing the intentions of each, and listening to their voices. In this regard, she said: “With the groups of students I am working with now, I was allowed to take their opinion into account, to consider what they prefer or do not prefer.”

Teacher C (male). Initially, the teacher identified himself with a mainly authoritative style, emphasizing the importance he gives to feedback and horizontal relationships with his students. In this regard, he expressed: “I want them to see in me a close figure of help and advice, but, at the same time, to respect and follow the class rules that have been reviewed together.” He also stated that sometimes he assumed attitudes that he considered authoritarian: “I see that, in my attitudes, there is a bit of an authoritarian component, and I do not consider it bad at all since, in some cases, it is good to have clear positions, although not intransigent.” In other words, at this point, the teacher interpreted that giving clear guidelines may reflect an authoritarian practice.

During the game, it was observed that he proposed strategies explaining his motives in a reasoned manner but always put the final decision in the hands of the group. In addition, he was empathetic with the other players, especially when they had some difficulty.

In the closing interview, one of the learnings highlighted by the teacher was that he was able to redefine the idea of being authoritarian. The experience allowed him to understand that having a structure in the classroom does not mean being authoritarian as long as he also opens spaces to listen to his students. In this regard, he said: “Being authoritarian was like setting guidelines and having a certain structure; this is not true, there has to be a structure, and that does not mean being authoritarian [...] but I think I consider now much more how to give them a voice in the classroom so that the others listen and develop.”

Teacher D (female). In the initial questionnaire, this teacher recognized in herself traits of the three styles. She associated authoritarian characteristics with mental rigidity because it was “difficult for her to assume immediate changes and unexpected consequences.” She justified the permissive style by admitting that she tended to “overlook formative details in my students because of time pressure.” Regarding the authoritative style, she stated that “she tended to remain in a state of mind prone to dialogue and consensus.”

During the game, it was consistently observed that the teacher planned strategies and made decisions collectively with her team members, constantly reasoning with them. There was an evident effort on her part to maintain motivation and good spirits in the team. In addition, she showed interest in their points of view, telling them that she wanted to hear what they thought.

During the closing interview, the teacher indicated: “I am someone different before and after the game.” In particular, one of the significant learnings is that she reinforced her authoritative style since she was able to assume more assertive attitudes in the relationship with her students based on recognizing their autonomy and their ability to reason and reach agreements. In this regard, she affirmed: “With the game, I reinforced that, yes, I have an assertive personality, I try to communicate, I seek consensus [with students], [...] I explain again and [say] listen, look at it from this side.”

Synthesis of the Captains’ Experiences in the Game

The first aspect to highlight is how, through the game experience and reflection after it, the teachers who played the role of captains reaffirmed their authoritative teaching style. Considering the four subdimensions of this teaching style, as for participation/autonomy, the intervention allowed them to value the roles and ideas of all team members. Regarding reasoning, the recognition of different voices and the importance of reasoned dialogue was observed among all participants when constructing their strategies to achieve common goals. This recognition of the voices of others also reflected their interest in the other. Finally, such interest on the part of the leader generated processes of support, trust, and understanding and facilitated team bonding.

Another important aspect was how interpretations of the concept of authoritarianism have changed. In the beginning, being directive and setting limits was interpreted as an authoritarian attitude that could be detrimental to the autonomy of students. However, the participants understood the importance of giving firm guidance, always with an attitude of listening, care, and interest in the well-being of others.

Discussion and Conclusions

This research explored how a game-based learning (GBL) intervention can promote the development of an authoritative teaching style in teachers. The evaluation of teaching styles was based on three styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive (Bernstein, 2021; Walker, 2009; Wentzel, 2002). This study focused on the authoritative style, which, taking Baumrind’s (1966, 1991) classification as a reference, is characterized by high levels of responsiveness and demandingness. For this research, the responsivenessdimension is understood as a teacher-student relationship in which affective bonding and interest in the other are observed. The demandingness dimension is understood as the teacher’s willingness to promote the participation and reasoning of students in collective decision-making processes. The definition of these two dimensions served as the conceptual basis for analyzing the changes in the participants caused by the GBL intervention.

The analysis of the quantitative information related to changes in the attitudes and behaviors of the participating teachers showed several relevant aspects. In the first place, descriptive analyses evidenced an increase in behaviors and attitudes favorable to the authoritative style and a minor decrease in behaviors and attitudes toward the permissive and authoritarian styles. In addition, based on the qualitative information collected, it was possible to identify the participants’ perceptions of their own teaching styles and how their participation in the game influenced them. The results showed that the teachers reflected on the importance of being an authoritative leader to achieve the game’s objectives. This led them to extrapolate these reflections to concrete aspects of their pedagogical practice in the classroom. More specifically, they understood how promoting participatory interactions, where the autonomy of team members is valued, facilitates the creation of affective bonds, positive relationships among members, and the achievement of collective accomplishments. Also, these teachers’ reflections evidenced the importance of developing skills such as sharing power at certain moments or having an attitude of active listening and assertiveness to promote participation. According to their responses, developing these skills allowed them to carry out a collective construction of strategies that, in the end, favored the achievement of objectives and the creation of a more positive classroom environment.

These results provide evidence of the potential of games as a pedagogical tool to develop complex skills (Mao et al., 2022; Papoutsi et al., 2022; Qian & Clark, 2016; Romero et al., 2015). In this case, the study showed that the cooperative mechanics of the “¡Aye!” game could be useful in promoting classroom management competencies guided by an authoritative teaching style. That is, placing teachers in a scenario in which they can put leadership competencies into practice in a teamwork challenge, as well as reflect on the usefulness and applicability of the game experience through a guided reflective exercise, might be a way to incorporate them into their teaching practice (Boghian et al., 2019; Westera, 2019).

Another noteworthy result was related to the categories of participation/autonomy and reasoning. It was observed that, as a result of the experience in the cooperative “¡Aye!” game, the teachers recognized the importance of guiding and communicating in a reasoned manner the strategies they wished to implement with their teammates, taking into account their contributions in all dynamics. This allowed teachers to construct the idea that empowerment is a fundamental part of an authoritative teaching style. In their reflections, they recognized the autonomy of their students to the extent that they valued their points of view and considered them capable of dialoguing and reasoning to reach agreements.

In addition to the above, for the categories of affectivity/bonding and interest in the other, the results showed that the cooperative dynamics of the game could favor connection among participants, build a climate of trust, and develop positive relationships (Gilliam et al. 2017; Qian & Clark, 2016). The teachers’ accounts evidenced that active listening among team members and the possibility of perspective-taking on the ideas of fellow gamers facilitated effective communication, bonding among participants, and teamwork (Boghian et al., 2019; Westera, 2019). Ultimately, the game dynamics allowed for the promotion of a safe environment for interaction and learning. These findings relate directly to the notions of responsiveness and demandingness originally proposed in the literature on parental parenting practices (Baumrind, 1991; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). They show that, in the educational context, when teachers acquire strategies that balance the two dimensions, they can develop an authoritative style.

The in-depth analysis of the information collected from the participants who assumed the role of game captains allowed for a better understanding of how a GBL tool can help transform teachers’ conceptions and pedagogical practices. In general terms, the analysis conducted with the four captains revealed a process of deep questioning of their pedagogical practices as a result of the experience and guided reflection on the game. The four teachers showed authoritative behaviors during the game session; they expressed different ways in which their role as leaders in the game allowed them to rethink their behaviors and beliefs regarding their classroom management. In addition, they showed a clearer and deeper understanding of their teaching style after taking on this role as captains. For example, they expressed that the exercise allowed them to understand that having directive behaviors with students does not mean being authoritarian as long as opportunities for participation and reasoning with students are open. In addition, they reinforced the idea that giving students a voice helps them build positive bonds among themselves and with the teacher. In summary, it was evident that the intervention allowed teachers to better understand how to maintain a balance between responsiveness and demandingness in their pedagogical interactions with students.

Limitations and Future Directions

Regarding the study limitations, it should be highlighted that the sample was selected from a particular course of a graduate program in education. Although this study had no pretensions of generalization, this sample is not highly representative of the teaching population in the Colombian context. Finally, the results of this study may be positively biased, given that the principal investigator was the one who implemented the intervention.

Considering the above, this study calls for further research to examine the potential of GBL for teacher training in other contexts more representative of the Colombian teaching population and with different games. In addition, it is worth replicating this experience in face-to-face mode, in which the interaction between players can be more spontaneous, and the challenges related to learning how to use the digital game platform are reduced. Likewise, the results of this study can inform the design of interventions that overcome the encountered challenges to conduct new evaluative studies of an experimental nature, in which the implementers and evaluators are different.

Contributions and Implications

The study results constitute a valuable contribution to the field of teacher training and pedagogical perspectives on GBL. First, they highlight the value of the reflective process following a GBL intervention, given that it helps participants reinforce or question their beliefs and behaviors. Second, the in-depth analysis with the game captains has evidenced the usefulness of conducting focused educational evaluations through case studies, as they enable a detailed understanding of the pedagogical experience based on the subjective experience of participants and not only from the external view of the researcher. Third, this study demonstrates how using quantitative and qualitative tools allows for a more complete picture of the participants’ experience and the potential of GBL for their learning.

On the other hand, some significant implications can also be derived from the results to evaluate and strengthen teacher training processes. The value of active and reflective pedagogies in transforming teacher practices is evident. Beyond the changes that may be generated in the teachers’ beliefs or attitudes, learning experiences such as GBL—which make visible the players’ behaviors and skills—allow participants to become aware of their actual pedagogical practices, question them, and transform them. This invites for a review of the pedagogical models implemented in initial and professional teacher training programs, emphasizing the importance of self-observation and reflection on teaching practices, for example, through simulation processes (such as GBL) or the observation of teacher performance in practice.

In conclusion, this study confirms that GBL, accompanied by guided reflection, is a promising pedagogical strategy to favor the development of more assertive and democratic teaching styles in educational settings. By allowing teachers to put their competencies into play and reflect on their achievements and challenges in the experience, the GBL model can be useful for transferring the learnings to teaching practice.

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Ana María Velásquez

PhD in Developmental Psychology, Professor and Academic Vice-Dean, Faculty of Education, Universidad de los Andes. Her topics of interest focus on classroom social climate, social-emotional learning, and education for coexistence. Recent publications: Velásquez, A. M., Saldarriaga, L. M., & Bukowski, W. M. (2023). Predicting changes in classroom aggression popularity norms: The role of teachers’ normative beliefs and support. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 47(3), 275-281, https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254231152423. Aguilar-Forero, N., Díaz-Marín, J. S., & Velásquez-Niño, A. M. (2023). Trayectoria, prácticas y aportes de la educación para la ciudadanía mundial en Colombia. Revista Colombiana de Educación, (88), 278-298, https://doi.org/110.17227/rce.num88-13725. Velásquez, A. M., Mendoza, D. F., & Nanwani, S. K. (2022). Becoming a competent classroom manager: A case-study of a preservice teacher education course. Teaching Education, 34(2), 147-169, https://doi.org/10.1080/10 476210.2022.2048646

Jorge Sted Trujillo

MA in Education, Coordinator of Student Permanence, Fundación Universitaria Agraria de Colombia. His topics of interest focus on the development of socioemotional competencies through games, motivation, and permanence in higher education, school coexistence, and conflict management. Recent publications: Trujillo-García, J. S. (2021). ¡Aye! una estrategia desde el aprendizaje basado en juegos para el desarrollo de competencias socioemocionales para la gestión del conflicto. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.

Lina María Saldarriaga

PhD in Developmental Psychology, Director of Operations, Corporación Aula en Paz. Her topics of interest focus on peer relationships, education for coexistence, and school mental health. Recent publications: Velásquez, A. M., Saldarriaga, L. M., & Bukowski, W. M. (2023). Predicting changes in classroom aggression status norms: The role of teachers’ normative beliefs and students’ perceived sup- port. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 47(3), 275-281, https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254231152423. Saldarriaga, L. M., & Agudelo, D.M. (2021). Cuando vivir duele. Cómo prevenir y acompañar las autolesiones y el suicidio en la infancia y la adolescencia. Bogotá: Diana. Velásquez, A. M., Saldarriaga, L. M., Castellanos, M., & Bukowski, W. M. (2021). The effect of classroom aggression-related peer group norms on students’ short-term trajectories of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 47(6), 672-684, https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21988

Daniel Felipe Espitia

MA in Education, Social sciences teacher, Gimnasio Fontana. His topics of interest focus on classroom management and the development and implementation of pedagogical proposals that promote the engagement and motivation of students according to their respective contexts. Recent publications: Espitia, D. F. (2023). Motivación en las ciencias sociales: Una propuesta didáctica enfocada en la motivación de los estudiantes articulando la teoría de la autodeterminación y la teoría expectativa-valor. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes. Aguilar-Forero, N., Mendoza Torres, D. F., Velásquez, A. M., Espitia, D. F., Ducón Pardey, J., & De Poorter, J. (2019). Educación para la ciudadanía mundial: Una innovación curricular en ciencias sociales. Revista Internacional de Educación para la Justicia Social, 8(2), 89-111, https://doi.org/10.15366/riejs2019.8.2.005

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