Colombia Internacional

Colomb. int. | eISSN 1900-6004 | ISSN 0121-5612

Subornos e aceitação social: uma abordagem mista

No. 110 (2022-04-01)
  • Viviana Baraybar Hidalgo
    University of Oxford (United Kingdom)
  • Yamile Guibert
    Cornell University (United States)
  • Paula Muñoz
    Universidad del Pacífico (Perú)
https://doi.org/10.7440/colombiaint110.2022.02

Resumo

Objetivo/contexto: o que pode levar algumas pessoas a serem mais propensas a mentir sobre sua participação na corrupção? Argumentamos que uma abordagem psicológica para o estudo da corrupção é importante a fim de compreender quem mente sobre o comportamento corrupto e por quê. Tendo em vista que os vieses de desejabilidade social (SDB, em inglês) estão relacionados com o caráter apropriado do comportamento, num contexto em que a corrupção está muito propagada, as normas sociais podem entrar em conflito e abrir espaço a SDB em pesquisas com perguntas diretas sobre comportamento corrupto no passado. Além disso, devido à existência de normas contraditórias, alguns subgrupos da população podem ser vistos particularmente afetados por esse tipo de viés. Portanto, a diferente exposição aos níveis de corrupção entre os grupos sociais e as diferentes expectativas sobre o comportamento apropriado entre os referentes sociais poderiam explicar as diversas atitudes e comportamentos dentro da sociedade. Metodologia: os grupos focais, o experimento de lista (list experiment) e os dados de enquetes oferecem evidência que apoia nossa abordagem psicológica. Conclusão: em geral, confirmamos que o SDB funciona inclusive num contexto no qual a corrupção está muito propagada, como no Peru. Quanto ao aspecto estatístico, evidenciou-se que a socialização de gênero é uma fonte importante de SDB quando é informada diretamente sobre comportamento de suborno no passado. Contudo, outras diferenças substanciais, não estatisticamente significativas, relacionadas com a idade, merecem maior discussão e pesquisa. Originalidade: este trabalho tem duas contribuições principais: primeira, destaca a importância de elaborar medidas discretas ao estudar a prevalência de práticas corruptas na América Latina; segunda, mostra que as intervenções de política para combater a corrupção podem não ser igualmente efetivas em diferentes grupos da população.

Palavras-chave: corrupção, suborno, grupos focais, experimento de lista, psicologia, comportamento, América Latina

Referências

Andvig, Jens C., and Karl O.Moene. 1990. “How Corruption May Corrupt.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 13 (1): 63-76. https://doi. org/10.1016/0167-2681(90)90053-G

Ariely, Dan. 2013. The Honest Truth About Dishonesty. New York: Harper Perennial.

Bandura, Albert. 1999. “A Social Cognitive Theory of Personality”. In Handbook of personality, edited by Oliver P.John, Richard W.Robins, and Lawrence A.Pervin, 154–196. New York: Guilford Publications.

Bandura, Albert, ClaudioBarbaranelli, Gian VittorioCaprara, and ConcettaPastorelli. 1996. “Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement in the Exercise of Moral Agency.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71 (2): 364-374. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.364

Baraybar, Viviana, Guibert, Yamilé, Guadalupe, César, and PaulaMuñoz. 2020. “The Logic of Favor Exchange in Peru: Individual Predispositions Towards Vara.” Manuscript.

Batson, Daniel. 2011. “What’s wrong with morality?” Emotion Review 3 (3): 230-236. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911402380

Batson, Daniel, and Elizabeth R.Thompson. 2001. “Why Don’t Moral People Act Morally? Motivational Considerations.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 10 (2): 54-57. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00114

Bernardi, Richard. 2006. “Associations between Hofstede’s Cultural Constructs and Social Desirability Response Bias.” Journal of Business Ethics 65 (1): 43-53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-005-5353-0

Bicchieri, Cristina. 2006. The Grammar of Society. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Blake, Charles H. 2009. “Public attitudes toward corruption”. In Corruption and Democracy in Latin America, edited by Charles H.Blake and Stephen D.Morris, 103–116. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

Borkowski, Susan, and YusufUgras. 1998. “Business Students and Ethics: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Business Ethics 17 (11): 1117-1127. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005748725174

Bradburn, Norman, SeymurSudman, EdBlair, and CarolStocking. 1978. “Question Threat and Response Bias.” Public Opinion Quarterly 42 (2): 221-234. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2748391

Bratton, Michael, and BeatriceLiatto-Katundu. 1994. “A Focus Group Assessment of Political Attitudes in Zambia.” African Affairs 93 (373): 535-563. https://www.jstor.org/stable/723666

Brennan, Geoffrey, LinaEriksson, RobertGoodin, and NicholasSouthwood. 2013. Explaining Norms. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bzdok, Danilo, LeonhardSchilbach, KaiVogeley, KarlaSchneider, Angela R.Laird, RobertLangner, and Simon B.Eickhoff. 2012 “Parsing the Neural correlates of Moral Cognition: ALE Meta-analysis on Morality, Theory of Mind, and Empathy.” Brain Structure & Function 217 (4): 783-796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-012-0380-y

Carrión, Julio, PatriciaZárate, FernandaBoidi, and ElizabethZechmeister. 2018. Cultura política de la democracia en Perú y en las Américas, 2016/17. Lima: USAID; Vanderbilt; LAPOP; IEP.

Corbacho, Ana, Daniel W.Gingerich, VirginiaOliveros, and MauricioRuiz-Vega. 2016. “Corruption as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Evidence from a Survey Experiment in Costa Rica.” American Journal of Political Science 60 (4): 1077-1092. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24877473

Chung, Janne, and GaryMonroe. 2003. “Exploring Social Desirability Bias.” Journal of Business Ethics 44 (4): 291-302. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023648703356

Cyr, Jennifer. 2019. “An Integrative Approach to Measurement: Focus Groups as a Survey Pretest.” Quality & Quantity 53 (2): 897-913. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-018-0795-5

Darley, John. 2005. “The Cognitive and Social Psychology of the Contagious Organizational Corruption.” Brooklyn Law Review 70 (4): 1177-1194.

de Sardan, J. P. Olivier. 1999. “A Moral Economy of Corruption in Africa?” The Journal of Modern African Studies 37 (1): 25-52. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X99002992

DeMaio, Theresa. 1984. “Social Desirability and Survey Measurement: A Review”. In Surveying Subjective Phenomena, edited by CharlesTurner and ElizabethMartin, 257-281. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Dungan, James, AdamWaytz, and LianeYoung. 2014. “Corruption in the context of moral trade-offs.” Journal of Interdisciplinary Economics 26 (1–2): 97–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0260107914540832

Durkheim, Emile. 1925. L’éducation morale, 2nd ed. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Ekeh, Peter. 1975. “Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa: A Theoretical Statement.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 17 (1): 91-112. https://www.jstor.org/stable/178372

Elster, John. 2011. “Norms.” In The Oxford Handbook of Analytical Sociology, edited by PeterBearmand and PeterHedström, Chapter 9. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Feldman, Yuval. 2018. The Law of Good People. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fergusson, Leopoldo, CarlosMolina, and Juan FelipeRiaño. 2018. “I Sell My Vote, and So What? Incidence, Social Bias, and Correlates of Clientelism in Colombia.” Economía 19 (1): 181-218. https://www.jstor.org/stable/90025866

Ferreira, Maria Cristina, RonaldFischer, JulianaBarreirosPorto, RonaldoPilati, and TacianoMilfont. 2012. “Unraveling the Mystery of Brazilian Jeitinho.” Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 38 (3): 331-344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211427148

Fink, Hady, and FrédéricBoehm. 2011. “Corrupción en la policía de tránsito. Una primera aproximación a través de entrevistas con taxistas colombianos.” Relaciones: Estudios de Historia y Sociedad 32 (126): 67-85.

Fisher, Robert. 1993. “Social Desirability Bias and the Validity of Indirect Questioning.” Journal of Consumer Research 20 (2): 303-315. https://doi.org/10.1086/209351

Flores-Macías, Gustavo, and JessicaZarkin. 2021. “Militarization and Perceptions of Law Enforcement in the Developing World: Evidence from a Conjoint Experiment in Mexico.” British Journal of Political Science, First View: 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123421000259

Ganegoda, Deshani, and CristinaBicchieri. 2017. “Determinants of Corruption: A Sociopsychological Analysis.” In Thinking about Bribery: Neuroscience, Moral Cognition and the Psychology of Bribery, edited by PhilipNichols and DianaRobertson, 177-178. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gingerich, Daniel, VirginiaOliveros, AnaCorbacho, and MauricioRuiz-Vega. 2015. Corruption as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Evidence from a Survey Experiment in Costa Rica. IDB Working Paper Series No. IDB-WP-546. Washington: Inter-American Development Bank.

Gino, Francesca, and LamarPierce. 2009. “Dishonesty in the Name of Equity.” Psychological Science 20 (9): 1153-1160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02421.x

Goldstein, Donna, and K.Drybread. 2018. “The Social Life of Corruption in Latin America.” Culture, Theory and Critique 59 (4): 299-311. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735784.2018.1531816

González-Ocantos, Ezequiel, Chad Kiewietde Jonge, CarlosMeléndez, JavierOsorio, and DavidNickerson. 2012. “Vote Buying and Social Desirability Bias.” American Journal of Political Science 56 (1): 202-217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00540.x

Gueorguiev, Dimitar, and EdmundMalesky. 2012. “Foreign Investment and Bribery.” Journal of Asian Economics 23 (2): 111-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asieco.2011.11.006

Guerrero, Manuel Alejandro, and EduardoRodríguez-Oreggia. 2008. “On the Individual Decisions to Commit Corruption.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 65 (2): 357-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2005.09.006

Haidt, Jonathan. 2008. “Morality.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 3 (1): 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00063.x

Haidt, Jonathan, and Kesebir, Selin. 2010. “Morality.” In Handbook of Social Psychology, edited by Susan T.Fiske, Daniel T.Gilbert, and GardnerLindzey, 797-832. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Huber, Evelyn, and JohnStephens. 2012. Democracy and the Left. Chicago: TheUniversity of Chicago Press.

Huber, Ludwig. 2008. Romper la mano. Lima: IEP/Proética.

Hunt, Jennifer. 2007. Bribery in Health Care in Peru and Uganda. Working Paper 13034. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Husted, Bryan. 1999. “Wealth, Culture, and Corruption.” Journal of International Business Studies 30 (2): 339-360. https://www.jstor.org/stable/155316

Imai, Kosuke. 2011. “Multivariate Regression Analysis for the Item Count Technique.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 106 (494): 407–416. https://doi.org/10.1198/jasa.2011.ap10415

Karim, Sabrina. 2011. “Madame Officer.” Americas Quarterly, August 9, 2011. https://americasquarterly.org/fulltextarticle/madame-officer/

Karklins, Rasma. 2005. The system made me do it: Corruption in post-communist societies. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Kaufman, Robert, and JoanNelson. 2004. Crucial Needs, Weak Incentives. Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.

Kidd, Pamela, and MarkParshall. 2000. “Getting the Focus and the Group: Enhancing Analytical Rigor in Focus Group Research.” Qualitative Health Research 10 (3): 293-308. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973200129118453

Kiewiet de Jonge, Chad. 2015. “Who lies about electoral gifts? Experimental evidence from Latin America.” Public Opinion Quarterly 79 (3): 710-739. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfv024

Klašnja, Marko, AndrewLittle, and JoshuaTucker. 2018. “Political Corruption Traps.” Political Science Research and Methods 6 (3): 413-428. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2016.45

Lax, Jeffrey, JustinPhillips, and AlissaStollwerk. 2016. “Are Survey Respondents Lying about Their Support for Same-Sex Marriage? Lessons from a List Experiment.” Public Opinion Quarterly 80 (2): 510-533. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfv056

Lipset, Seymour, and Gabriel SalmanLenz. 2000. “Corruption, Culture and Market.” In Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress, edited by SamuelHuntington and LawrenceHarrison, 112-125. New York: Basic Books.

Madriz, Esther. 1998. “Using Focus Groups with Lower Socioeconomic Status Latina Women.” Qualitative Inquiry 4 (1): 114-128. https://doi.org/10.1177/107780049800400107

Mishra, Ajit, and DilipMookherjee. 2013. Controlling Collusion and Extortion: The Twin Faces of Corruption. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.640.2529&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Monin, Benoît, and AnnaMerritt. 2012. “Moral Hypocrisy, Moral Inconsistency, and the Struggle for Moral Integrity.” In The Social Psychology of Morality, edited by MarioMikulincer and PhillipShaver, 167-184. Washington: American Psychological Association.

Monin, Benoît, PamelaSawyer, and MatthewMarquez. 2008. “The Rejection of Moral Rebels: Resenting Those Who do the Right Thing.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (1): 76-93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.76

Oliveros, Virgina, and DanielGingerich. 2020. “Lying About Corruption in Surveys.” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 32 (2): 384-395. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edz019

Ostrom, Elinor. 2000. “Collective Action and the Evolution of Social Norms.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 14 (3): 137-158. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.14.3.137

Pavão, Nara. 2015. The Failures of Electoral Accountability for Corruption: Brazil and Beyond. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame.

Pavão, Nara. 2016. Coming to Terms with the Inevitable? Understanding Tolerance Toward Corruption. Manuscript.

Pavão, Nara. 2018. “Corruption as the only option: The limits to electoral accountability.” Journal of Politics 80 (3): 996-1010. https://doi.org/10.1086/697954

Singer, Peter. 2011. The Expanding Circle. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Tenbrunsel, Ann, and DavidMessick. 2004. “Ethical Fading: The Role of Self-Deception in Unethical Behavior.” Social Justice Research 17 (2): 223-236. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SORE.0000027411.35832.53

Tsuchiya, Takahiro, YokoHirai, and ShigeruOno. 2007. “A Study of the Properties of the Item Count Technique.” Public Opinion Quarterly 71 (2): 253–272. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfm012

Transparency International. 2019. Annual Report. https://images.transparencycdn.org/images/TransparencyInternationalAnnualReport2019_English.pdf

Vásquez, Ernesto. 2013. “Hacerse hombre.” Política y Sociedad 50 (3): 817-835. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_POSO.2013.v50.n3.41973

Walton, Grant. 2013. “Is all Corruption Dysfunctional? Perceptions of Corruption and its Consequences in Papua New Guinea.” Public Administration and Development 33 (3): 175-190. https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.1636

Wiltermuth, Scott. 2011. “Cheating more when the spoils are split.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 115 (2): 157-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. obhdp.2010.10.001

Yamada, Gustavo, and RicardoMontero. 2011. Corrupción e inequidad en los servicios públicos en el Perú. Lima: CIUP-CIES.

Zechmeister, Elizabeth, NoamLupu, and MollieCohen. 2017. Democracy and Governance in the Americas: Key Findings from LAPOP’s AmericasBarometer. Latina American Public Opinion Project. https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/insights/ITB030en.pdf

Licença

Creative Commons License

Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.