International Influence and National Initiative in the Formulation of Educational Policy: Three Case Studies in El Salvador

In this article, we analyze and compare three cases of education policy formation from El Salvador, a country affected by civil war during 1980-1992. The three policy cases presented began to emerge in the early 1990s and subsequently impacted—to varying degrees—the creation during 1993-1995 of the Ten Year Plan (1995-2005). Specifically, we investigate the formation of: the “Education with Community Participation” (EDUCO) Program; the policy to focus on gender equality in education; and the policy for education in values. In these cases, we focus on the relevant political-economic aspects of the context in order to unpack the interaction, impact, and influence of local, national, and international actors in the process of policy formation. The findings specify the ways in which the formation of these policies reflected dynamics of imposition, hybridization, and negotiation. We conclude by reflecting on some of the challenges that face ministries of education and which contribute to their vulnerable position in the present context of globalization.