¿Desigualdad o dignidad? Justificación del sistema por dominio específico y minimización paliativa de la discriminación percibida entre grupos minorizados en Chile
No. 95 (2026-01-31)Autor/a(es/as)
-
Joaquín BahamondesUniversidad Católica del Norte, ChileIdentificador ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3777-8233
Resumen
En este artículo se examinan los mecanismos psicológicos a través de los cuales las creencias que justifican el sistema mitigan los efectos adversos de la discriminación percibida sobre el bienestar de los miembros de grupos históricamente marginados en Chile. Basándose en la hipótesis de estatus-legitimidad y en la teoría de la justificación del sistema, el análisis examina si las creencias que legitiman el orden sociopolítico pueden cumplir una función paliativa, especialmente cuando se corresponden con una dimensión específica de injusticia para una identidad social determinada. Así pues, se realizaron dos estudios en los que participaron mujeres y mapuche; ambos grupos ocupan posiciones estructuralmente desfavorecidas en la sociedad chilena. En el estudio 1 (N = 1,046) se replicaron los resultados observados anteriormente en contextos WEIRD, lo que demostró que las creencias que justifican el sistema —operacionalizadas por medio de evaluaciones de equidad sistémica específicas de género y etnia— moderan la relación entre el estatus del grupo y el bienestar, al atenuar las percepciones de discriminación entre los socialmente desfavorecidos. Los resultados de los modelos subsecuentes de mediación moderada muestran que las creencias más fuertes en la justificación del sistema reducen la brecha de discriminación percibida entre los participantes desfavorecidos y favorecidos, lo que reduce las disparidades en el bienestar. En el estudio 2 (N = 777) se amplía el análisis anterior al estudiar qué ámbito específico de la equidad del sistema —igualdad distributiva, respeto, dignidad y tradición— es el que mejor predice la discriminación percibida (o la ausencia de esta). Mediante el uso de ítems de diferencial semántico y modelos de regresión cuadrática, los resultados muestran que, para las mujeres, la reducción de la discriminación por motivos de género se alinea con opiniones moderadas sobre la justicia distributiva. Sin embargo, entre los participantes mapuche, la dignidad percibida y el respeto social son más importantes para explicar la atenuación de las percepciones de discriminación. En conjunto, estos hallazgos ofrecen nuevas pruebas de que los efectos paliativos de la ideología son específicos de cada ámbito y subrayan la necesidad de desglosar la legitimidad del sistema en cada uno de sus componentes para comprender mejor la dinámica psicológica del afrontamiento ideológico. Al contextualizar estos mecanismos dentro de una sociedad latinoamericana, esta investigación avanza en las explicaciones teóricas de la justificación del sistema y destaca cómo distintos grupos identitarios legitiman la desigualdad aferrándose a diferentes ámbitos de la equidad del sistema.
Referencias
Altemeyer, Bob. 1988. Enemies of Freedom: Understanding Right-Wing Authoritarianism. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
American Psychological Association. 2017. Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/ethics/code
Bahamondes, Joaquín, and Jaime Barrientos. 2024. “Adaptación y validación de la versión en español de la escala de justificación del sistema: evaluación psicométrica en tres muestras chilenas.” Revista Iberoamericana de Diagnóstico y Evaluación Psicológica 74 (4): 109-124. https://doi.org/10.21865/RIDEP74.4.07
Bahamondes, Joaquín, Fabiola Gómez, Jaime Barrientos, Manuel Cárdenas, and Mónica Guzmán-González. 2020. “Numbing the Perception of Stigma: System Justification Decreases Psychological Distress by Reducing Perceived Stigma among Gay Men and Lesbians.” Revista de Psicología Social 35 (2): 282-309. https://doi.org/10.1080/02134748.2020.1721052
Bahamondes, Joaquín, Chris G. Sibley, and Danny Osborne. 2019. “‘We Look (and Feel) Better Through System Justifying Lenses’: Evidence of the Palliative Function of Ideology among the Disadvantaged.” Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 45 (9): 1391-1408. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167219829178
Bahamondes, Joaquín, Chris G. Sibley, and Danny Osborne. 2021. “System Justification and Perceptions of Group-Based Discrimination: Investigating the Temporal Order of the Ideologically Motivated Minimization (or Exaggeration) of Discrimination Across Low- and High-Status Groups.” Social Psychological & Personality Science 12 (4): 431-441. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620929452
Banaji, Mahzarin R., Curtis D. Hardin, and Alexander J. Rothman. 1993. “Implicit Stereotyping in Person Judgment.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (2): 272-281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.272
Becker, Julia C. 2012. “The System-stabilizing Role of Identity Management Strategies: Social Creativity can Undermine Collective Action for Social Change.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 103 (4): 647-662. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029240
Bengoa, José. 2000. Historia del pueblo mapuche: Siglo XIX y XX. Santiago de Chile: LOM.
Berger, Peter L., and Thomas Luckmann. 1991. The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. London: Penguin.
Billig, Michael. 1991. Ideology and Opinions: Studies in Rhetorical Psychology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Blanchar, John C., Scott Eidelman, and Eric Allen. 2024. “Social Change Requires More Justification Than Maintaining the Status Quo.” Frontiers in Social Psychology 2: 1360377. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsps.2024.1360377
Blanz, Mathias, Amélie Mummendey, Rosemarie Mielke, and Andreas Klink. 1998. “Responding to Negative Social Identity: A Taxonomy of Identity Management Strategies.” European Journal of Social Psychology 28 (5): 697-729. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199809/10)28:5<697::AID-EJSP889>3.0.CO;2-%23
Brosnan, Sarah F., and Frans B. M. de Waal. 2003. “Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay.” Nature 425 (6955): 297-299. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01963
CNN Chile. 2014. “Sergio Villalobos sobre tierras mapuches: ‘no podía seguir ese desperdicio’.” March 21. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q9UDTqJw_nA
Crosby, Faye J., Ann Pufall, Richard C. Snyder, Mary O’Connell, and Patricia Whalen. 1989. “The Denial of Personal Disadvantage Among You, Me, and All the Other Ostriches.” In Gender and Thought: Psychological Perspectives, edited by Mary Crawford and Margaret Gentry, 79-99. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Duckitt, John. 2001. “A Dual-Process Cognitive-Motivational Theory of Ideology and Prejudice.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, edited by Mark P. Zanna, 33: 41-113. San Diego: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(01)80004-6
Duckitt, John, and Chris G. Sibley. 2009. “A Dual Process Motivational Model of Ideological Attitudes and System Justification.” In Social and Psychological Bases of Ideology and System Justification, edited by John T. Jost, Aaron C. Kay, and Hulda Thorisdottir, 292-313. New York: Oxford University Press.
Duckitt, John, and Chris G. Sibley. 2017. “The Dual Process Motivational Model of Ideology and Prejudice.” In The Cambridge Handbook of the Psychology of Prejudice, edited by Chris G. Sibley and Fiona Kate Barlow, 188-221. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Eidelman, Scott, and Christian S. Crandall. 2014. “The Intuitive Traditionalist: How Biases for Existence and Longevity Promote the Status Quo.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, edited by James M. Olson and Mark P. Zanna, 50: 53-104. San Diego: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800284-1.00002-3
Figueiredo, Ana, Carolina Rocha, Trinidad Ferreiro, Catarina Guerrero, Micaela Varela, Pietro Montagna, et al. 2019. “Representations of History and Present-Day Intergroup Relations between Indigenous and Non-Indigenous People: The Mapuche in Chile.” In History and Collective Memory from the Margins: A Global Perspective, edited by Sahana Mukherjee and Phia S. Salter, 79-104. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
Foster, Mindi D., Lisa Sloto, and Rebecca Ruby. 2006. “Responding to Discrimination as a Function of Meritocracy Beliefs and Personal Experiences: Testing the Model of Shattered Assumptions.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 9 (3): 401-411. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430206064641
Frei, Raimundo, and Macarena Orchard. 2023. “La dignidad como lente analítico en el estudio de la desigualdad: reflexiones desde el caso chileno.” In La desigualdad en nuestras vidas: una mirada microsocial desde América Latina, edited by Catalina Maldonado Graus and Bettina Schorr, 49-72. Madrid: Iberoamericana Vervuert.
Friborg, Oddgeir, Martin Martinussen, and Jan H. Rosenvinge. 2006. “Likert-Based vs. Semantic Differential-Based Scorings of Positive Psychological Constructs: A Psychometric Comparison of Two Versions of a Scale Measuring Resilience.” Personality and Individual Differences 40 (5): 873-884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.08.015
Glick, Peter, and Susan T. Fiske. 2001. “An Ambivalent Alliance: Hostile and Benevolent Sexism as Complementary Justifications for Gender Inequality.” American Psychologist 56 (2): 109-118. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.2.109
Hayes, Andrew F. 2015. “An Index and Test of Linear Moderated Mediation.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 50 (1): 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2014.962683
Hayes, Andrew. F. 2022. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-based Approach. New York: The Gilford Press.
Heise, David R. 1970. “The Semantic Differential and Attitude Research.” In Attitude Measurement, edited by Gene F. Summers, 235-253. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Henrich, Joseph, Steven J. Heine, and Ara Norenzayan. 2010. "The Weirdest People in the World?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33 (2-3): 61-83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X
Horn, John L. 1965. “A Rationale and Test for the Number of Factors in Factor Analysis.” Psychometrika 30 (2): 179-185. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289447
Huepe, David, Nicolás Salas, and Jorge Manzi. 2016. “Estereotipos de género y prejuicio implícito en matemáticas y lenguaje: aportes desde la cognición social.” In Abriendo las puertas del aula: transformación de las prácticas docentes, edited by Jorge Manzi and María Rosa García, 481-514. Santiago de Chile: Ediciones UC.
Janoff-Bulman, Ronnie. 1989. “The Benefits of Illusions, the Threat of Disillusionment, and the Limitations of Inaccuracy.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 8 (2): 158-175. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1989.8.2.158
Jost, John T. 2020. A Theory of System Justification. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Jost, John T., and Mahzarin R. Banaji. 1994. “The Role of Stereotyping in System-Justification and the Production of False Consciousness.” British Journal of Social Psychology 33 (1): 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.x
Jost, John T., and Diana Burgess. 2000. “Attitudinal Ambivalence and the Conflict Between Group and System Justification Motives in Low Status Groups.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (3): 293-305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200265003
Jost, John T., Christopher M. Federico, and Jaime L. Napier. 2009. “Political Ideology: Its Structure, Functions, and Elective Affinities.” Annual Review of Psychology 60: 307-337. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163600
Jost, John T., and Orsolya Hunyady. 2005. “Antecedents and Consequences of System-Justifying Ideologies.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 14 (5): 260-265. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00377.x
Jost, John T., and Aaron C. Kay. 2005. “Exposure to Benevolent Sexism and Complementary Gender Stereotypes: Consequences for Specific and Diffuse Forms of System Justification.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (3): 498-509. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.498
KPMG, Diversity Council Australia, and Workplace Gender Equality Agency. 2019. She’s Price(d)less: The Economics of the Gender Pay Gap-Summary Report. https://home.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/au/pdf/2019/gender-pay-gapeconomics-summary-report-2019.pdf
Larraín, Jorge. 2001. Identidad chilena. Santiago de Chile: LOM.
Lima, Bruno P. B., Luana E. C. Souza, and John T. Jost. 2025. “System Justification, Subjective Well-being, and Mental Health Symptoms in Members of Disadvantaged Minority Groups.” Clinical Psychology Review 115: 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2024.102532
Major, Brenda, Richard H. Gramzow, Sarah K. McCoy, Shana Levin, Toni Schmader, and Jim Sidanius. 2002. “Perceiving Personal Discrimination: The Role of Group Status and Legitimizing Ideology.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (3): 269-282. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.3.269
Major, Brenda, and Cheryl R. Kaiser. 2017. “Ideology and the Maintenance of Group Inequality.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 20 (5): 582-592. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430217712051
Major, Brenda, Cheryl R. Kaiser, Laurie T. O’Brien, and Sarah K. McCoy. 2007. “Perceived Discrimination as Worldview Threat or Worldview Confirmation: Implications for Self-Esteem.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (6): 1068-1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1068
Martín-Baró, Ignacio. 1989. Sistema, grupo y poder. San Salvador: UCA editores.
Martín-Baró, Ignacio. 1994. Writings for a Liberation Psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
McCoy, Sarah K., and Brenda Major. 2007. “Priming Meritocracy and the Psychological Justification of Inequality.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43 (3): 341-351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.04.009
Meeus, José, Roberto González, and Jorge Manzi. 2016. “Ser ‘blanco’ o ‘moreno’ en Chile: el impacto de la apariencia en las expectativas educativas y las calificaciones escolares.” In Abriendo las puertas del aula: transformación de las prácticas docentes, edited by Jorge Manzi and María Rosa García, 515-542. Santiago de Chile: Ediciones UC.
Napier, Jaime L., Alexandra Suppes, and Maria L. Bettinsoli. 2020. “Denial of Gender Discrimination Is Associated with Better Subjective Well-Being Among Women: A System Justification Account.” European Journal of Social Psychology 50 (6): 1191-1209. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2702
Neumark, David, Roy J. Bank, and Kyle D. Van Nort. 1996. “Sex Discrimination in Restaurant Hiring: An Audit Study.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 111 (3): 915-941. https://doi.org/10.2307/2946676
Noor, Masi, Nurit Shnabel, Samer Halabi, and Arie Nadler. 2012. “When Suffering Begets Suffering: The Psychology of Competitive Victimhood Between Adversarial Groups in Violent Conflicts.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 16 (4): 351-374. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868312440048
Osborne, Danny, John. T. Jost, Julia. C. Becker, Vivienne Badaan, and Chris G. Sibley. 2019. “Protesting to Challenge or Defend The System? A System Justification Perspective on Collective Action.” European Journal of Social Psychology 49 (2): 244-269. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2522
Osgood, Charles E., George J. Suci, and Percy H. Tannenbaum. 1957. The Measurement of Meaning. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Pairican, Fernando. 2022. La vía política mapuche: apuntes para un estado plurinacional. Santiago de Chile: Paidós.
Phelan, Jo. C., Bruce G. Link, and John F. Dovidio. 2008. “Stigma and Prejudice: One Animal or Two?” Social Science & Medicine 67 (3): 358-367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.022
Piketty, Thomas. 2020. Capital and Ideology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Quinn, Diane M., and Jennifer Crocker. 1999. “When Ideology Hurts: Effects of Belief in the Protestant Ethic and Feeling Overweight on the Psychological Well-Being of Women.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (2): 402-414. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.402
Radio La Isla. 2023. “Alcalde de Queilen se burló de la comunidad Mapuche Williche en pleno concejo municipal.” Radio La Isla, November 20. https://radiolaisla.cl/alcalde-de-queilen-se-burlo-de-la-comunidad-mapuche-willicheen-pleno-concejo-municipal/
Riach, P. A., and J. Rich. 2006. “An Experimental Investigation of Sexual Discrimination in Hiring in the English Labor Market.” Advances in Economic Analysis & Policy 6 (2). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2202/1538-0637.1416
Richeson, Jennifer A., and Nalini Ambady. 2001. “Who’s in Charge? Effects of Situational Roles on Automatic Gender Bias.” Sex Roles 44 (9-10): 493-512. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012242123824
Rosseel, Yves. 2012. “lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling.” Journal of Statistical Software 48 (2): 1-36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
Rudman, Laurie A., and Stephen E. Kilianski. 2000. “Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Female Authority.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (11): 1315-1328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200263001
Saiz, José L., María Eugenia Merino, and Daniel Quilaqueo. 2009. “Meta-estereotipos sobre los indígenas mapuches de Chile.” Interdisciplinaria 26 (1): 23-48. https://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1668-70272009000100002
Saiz, José L., María Eugenia Rapimán, and Antonio Mladinic. 2008. “Estereotipos sobre los Mapuche: su reciente evolución.” Psykhe 17 (2): 27-40. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-22282008000200003
Schmitt, Michael T., and Nyla R. Branscombe. 2002. “The Meaning and Consequences of Perceived Discrimination in Disadvantaged and Privileged Social Groups.” European Review of Social Psychology 12 (1): 167-199. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792772143000058
Sengupta, Nikhil K., Danny Osborne, and Chris G. Sibley. 2015. “The Status-Legitimacy Hypothesis Revisited: Ethnic-Group Differences in General and Dimension-Specific Legitimacy.” British Journal of Social Psychology 54 (2): 324-340. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12080
Sidanius, Jim, and Felicia Pratto. 1993. “The Inevitability of Oppression and the Dynamics of Social Dominance.” In Prejudice, Politics, and the American Dilemma, edited by Paul M. Sniderman, Philip E. Tetlock, and Edward G. Carmines, 173-211. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Sidanius, Jim, and Felicia Pratto. 1999. Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Simons, Daniel J., Yuichi Shoda, and D. Stephen Lindsay. 2017. “Constraints on Generality (COG): A Proposed Addition to All Empirical Papers.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 12 (6): 1123-1128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617708630
Storage, Daniel, Tessa E. S. Charlesworth, Mahzarin R. Banaji, and Andrei Cimpian. 2020. “Adults and Children Implicitly Associate Brilliance with Men More Than Women.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 90: 104020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104020
Suppes, Alexandra, Jamie L. Napier, and Jojanneke van der Toorn. 2019. “The Palliative Effects of System Justification on the Health and Happiness of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Individuals.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 45 (3): 372-388. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218785156
Tajfel, Henri. 1981. Human Groups and Social Categories: Studies in Social Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The R Core Team. 2024. “R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.” The R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://cran.r-project.org/doc/manuals/r-release/fullrefman.pdf
Therborn, Göran, ed. 2006. Inequalities of the World: New Theoretical Frameworks, Multiple Empirical Approaches. London: Verso.
Therborn, Göran. 2018. “Racism, Existential Inequality and Problems of Categorical Equalisation: Reflections on the South African Experience.” In The Effects of Race, edited by Nina G. Jablonski and Gerhard Maré, 35-52. Stellenbosch: SUN Press.
Tyler, Tom R. 2006. “Psychological Perspectives on Legitimacy and Legitimation.” Annual Review of Psychology 57: 375-400. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190038
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2017. Desiguales: orígenes, cambios y desafíos de la brecha social en Chile. Santiago de Chile: Uqbar Editores.
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2019. Human Development Report 2019: Beyond Income, Beyond Averages, Beyond Today - Inequalities in Human Development in the 21st Century. New York: UNDP. https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2019
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2022. Equality of Opportunity as a Measure of Development. New York: UNDP. https://www.undp.org/asia-pacific/publications/equality-opportunity-measure-development
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2024. Human Development Report 2023/2024: Breaking the Gridlock. New York: UNDP. https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2023-24
Vargas-Salfate, Salvador, Julia Spielmann, and Don A. Briley. 2024. “Supporting the Status Quo Is Weakly Associated with Subjective Well-Being: A Comparison of the Palliative Function of Ideology Across Social Status Groups Using a Meta-Analytic Approach.” Psychological Bulletin 150 (11): 1318-1346. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000446
Wilkins, Clara L., Joseph D. Wellman, Erika L. Flavin, and Juliana A. Manrique. 2018. “When Men Perceive Anti-Male Bias: Status-Legitimizing Beliefs Increase Discrimination Against Women.” Psychology of Men & Masculinity 19 (2): 282-290. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000097
Licencia
Derechos de autor 2026 Joaquín Bahamondes
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivadas 4.0.